1 


TME  LIFE  HMD  MINISTRY 

OF 

PnUL  THE  APOSTQ 


•■m 


ANi 


ENSMORE  WOOD,  M.A, 


BS  2505  .W662  1912 
Wood,  Eleanor  Densmore. 
The  life  and  ministry  of 
Paul  the  apostle  . . 


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THE    LIFE    AND     MINISTRY 

OF 

PAUL    THE    APOSTLE 


[all    rights    RFSERVEI).] 


TO     YOU 

OF     THE     ADULT     SCHOOLS 

FOR     YOUR     PROGRESS     AND     JOY     IX     FAITH 


PREFACE 

Workers  in  all  branches  of  historical  study  to-day 
agree  that  the  only  right  way  to  seek  for  the  truth  about 
a  person  or  a  period  is  to  search  carefully  for  the  best 
sources  of  information  and  to  interpret  them  conscien- 
tiously and  intelhgently.  The  modern  student  of 
Biblical  history  realizes  keenly  that  he  will  get  near  to 
the  truth  only  if  he  asks  continually  as  he  works, 
What  do  my  best  sources  say  ?  What  do  they  indi- 
cate ?  He  knows  that  it  is  his  duty  to  set  forth  as 
history  only  a  fair  answer  to  these  questions.  Imagin- 
ation, of  course,  is  indispensable  to  anyone  who  would 
tell  the  story  of  a  far  away  time,  since  the  sources  of 
information  are  never  complete,  but  imagination  is 
worse  than  useless  unless  it  is  chastened  by  all  the 
facts  available.  In  any  reconstruction  facts  must  be 
used  for  the  fundamental  elements  and  imagination 
only  for  the  cement  and  finishing. 

Now  this  scholarly  method  and  criterion  is  rapidly 
becoming  the  standard  of  the  people,  who  read  history 
and  biography.  Bible  readers,  especially,  are  asking 
to  share  not  only  the  conclusions  of  the  scholars,  but 
the  evidence  upon  which  they  build.  Let  us  know 
clearly,  they  demand,  which  of  your  conclusions  are 


2  PREFACE 

based  upon  actual  evidence  and  which  are  the  result 
of  your  trained  imagination.  Show  us  your  sources 
and  your  reasons,  that  wc  may  see  and  think  for 
ourselves. 

It  is  the  hope  of  contributing  to  this  inspiring 
demand  that  has  led  to  the  writing  of  this  book  on 
Paul,  the  problems  of  whose  life  and  work,  though 
difficult,  are  worth  careful  study,  since  they  give  an 
insight  into  the  qualities  of  his  powerful  personality 
which  is  sure  to  prove  an  inspiration. 

Eleanor  Densmore  Wood. 
Rome,  Italy, 

November,  IQ12. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.       SOURCES     FOR    THE     LIFE     OF     PAUL        -  "13 

IL       EARLY    ENVIRONMENT  -  -  -2^ 

III.  Paul's  education        -             -             -             -  3' 

IV.  attitude  toward  a  new  movement  -              -  42 
V.     Paul's  transforxMing  experience    -             -  49 

VI.  changes  in  thought  and  life          -              -  54 

VII.  Paul's  further  preparation            -             -  62 
VIII.     the  gospel  taken   to  gentile  galatia     -  75 

IX.       PAUL    stands    for     "  LIBERTY  "    BEFORE    THE 

JERUSALEM    APOSTLES          -                   -                   -  ^6 

X.       THE     "truth     OF    THE    GOSPEL"     MAINTAINED 

IN    ANTIOCH                -                   -                   -                   -  99 

XI.       PAUL    TAKES    THE     "  FAITH     OF    THE     GOSPEL  " 

INTO     GREECE              -                   -                   -                   -  I06 

XII.       THE     "  GOSPEL     OF     GOD  "     INTRODUCED     INTO 

THESSALONICA          -                   -                   -                   -  II9 

XIII.  PAUL       PROCLAIMS       THE       RISEN       CHRIST        IN 

ATHENS       -                   -                   -                   -                   -  127 

XIV.  THE       THESSALONIANS       SAVED       FROM       OTHER 

WORLDLINESS           -                   -                   -                   -  1  39 

XV;       PAUL     ESTABLISHES     THE     RELIGION       OF      THE 

SPIRIT  IN  CORINTH  AND  GALATIA    -                   '  ^  S^ 


4  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I'AGE 

XVI.     Paul's     "  daily    anxiety  "     for    corinth 

WHILE    FACING    DANGER    IN    EPHESUS  -  1 66 

XVII.       LOVE    RESTORES  ORDER   IN    CORINTH    WITHOUT 

LOSS    OF    LIBERTY  -  -  -  I  84 

XVIII.       PAUL    RISKS    HIS    LIFE    FOR    HIS    BRETHREN    IN 

JERUSALEM  -  -  .  _  2OO 

XIX.       PAUL    "more    than    CONQUEROR"    AT    ROME    -  221 

XX.     Paul's    world-wide    message  -  -  244 

TABLE    OF    DATES 248 

MAP    OF    ROMAN    EMPIRE  .  -  -  facing  248 

INDICES 

I. — BIBLICAL    PASSAGES    CITED  -  -  -  249 

II. PLACES,    PERSONS,    SUBJECTS  -  -  "2  57 


INTRODUCTION 

Those  who  have  read  and  enjoyed  Eleanor  Wood's 
"  Story  of  the  Prophets,"  will  be  prepared  to  give  a  warm 
welcome  to  her  book  on  "  The  Life  and  Ministry  of  Paul." 
No  words  of  commendation  are  really  needed,  for  this 
sketch  of  the  great  apostle  will  readily  win  readers  for 
itself.  The  same  scholarship,  the  same  simple  directness 
of  style,  and  the  same  quickness  of  sympathy  are  at  our 
service  here  to  enable  us  to  appreciate  Paul,  as  in  the 
former  book  helped  us  to  understand  Amos,  Hosea  and 
the  other  great  heroes  of  Hebrew  prophecy. 

I  have  said  "  the  same  scholarship  is  at  our  service 
here,"  but  I  might  have  said,  "  still  greater  scholarship," 
for  unless  I  am  much  mistaken  Miss  Wood  is  even  more 
interested  and  at  home  in  New  Testament  study  than 
she  is  in  the  Old  Testament  field.  Yet  the  important 
thing  is  that  both  books  embody  the  same  spirit  of 
reverent  and  enlightened  criticism.  It  is  even  more 
desirable  that  Miss  Wood's  readers  should  catch  some- 
thing of  this  spirit  than  that  they  should  accept  her 
conclusions.  We  need  more  of  the  temper  of  true 
scholarship  if  our  study  of  the  Bible  is  to  bear  lasting 
fruit.  Criticism  and  devotion  must  either  heartily 
co-operate  or  disastrously  cripple  one  another.  M.  Paul 
Sabatier,  speaking  of  America,  says  that  "  the  out- 
standing fact  in  religious  life  there  is  the  increased 
critical  knowledge  of  the  Bible  among  scholars,  and  the 
declining  popular  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures."     What 


b  INTRODUCTION 

is  true  of  America,  is  largely  true  of  England  also.  The 
Bible  is  less  read  than  it  used  to  be.  It  is  a  common- 
place among  public  speakers  that  BibHcal  allusions  are 
much  less  readily  appreciated  than  they  were  in  the  days 
of  Bright  and  Gladstone.  This  is  not  merely  a  handicap 
for  orators  :  it  is  a  misfortune  for  faith.  There  is,  in 
my  judgment,  but  one  remedy.  If  we  are  to  restore 
men's  interest  in  the  Bible,  they  must  be  encouraged  to 
handle  it  with  the  fearless  candour  that  characterizes 
this  Adult  School  Study  Series.  As  a  movement,  we  are 
committed  to  the  attempt  to  wed  criticism  and  devotion 
in  the  mind  of  the  people,  and  only  thus  will  the  Bible 
retain  its  central  place  in  the  life  of  our  Schools  and  in 
the  religious  life  alike  of  the  individual  and  the  nation. 
It  is  particularly  happy  that  the  second  volume  of 
this  new  series  should  be  devoted  to  the  study  of  St. 
Paul.  For  we  are  still  much  influenced  by  the  tendency 
to  relegate  St.  Paul  to  a  back  seat.  Towards  the  close 
of  the  nineteenth  century  there  was  a  strong  reaction 
from  Pauline  theology.  In  his  great  book  an  "  Christ 
in  Modern  Theology,"  the  late  Dr.  Fairbairn  commented 
on  the  change  that  had  come  over  the  typical  ministerial 
library.  Systematic  treatises  on  the  doctrines  dear  to 
Paul,  the  doctrines  of  the  Fall  and  Redemption,  of 
Justification  and  Sanctification,  were  displaced  to  make 
room  for  lives  of  Christ,  and  books  on  the  teaching  of 
Jesus.  The  cry  was  "  Back  to  Christ  !  "  and  it  meant, 
let  us  get  behind  the  theological  interpretation  of  St. 
Paul,  to  the  historic  figure  of  Jesus.  We  are  not  to  be 
bound  by  what  Paul  taught  about  Jesus,  but  by  what 
Jesus  himself  taught.  Let  u^  ignore  the  obscure  and 
intricate  doctrinal  discussions  of  the  letter  to  the  Romans 
and  get  back  to  the  ethical  simplicities  of  the  Sermon  on 
the  Mount.     We  do  not  need  Paul's  doctrine  of  the 


INTRODUCTION  7 

Atonement,  when  we  can  find  the  gospel  of  forgiveness 
in  the  parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son.  The  Adult  School 
Movement  shared  and  shares  this  attitude  of  mind. 
The  watchword  of  many  is  "  Less  dogma,  less  doctrine, 
and  more  practice,"  and  we  really  mean,  "  Away  from 
the  doctrine  of  Paul,  and  back  to  the  ethics  of  Jesus." 

That  there  is  much  that  is  healthy  in  this  revolt  from 
Pauline  theology,  is  undeniable.  At  the  same  time  it  is 
manifestly  less  than  just  to  Paul  himself.  Miss  Wood's 
book  begins  to  restore  the  balance,  first  of  all,  by 
rescuing  St.  Paul  from  the  hands  of  the  theologians. 
So  long  as  St.  Paul  is  regarded  first  and  foremost  as  a 
theologian,  we  are  on  our  guard  ;  we  are  a  little  chary  of 
making  his  closer  acquaintance.  But  even  when  we 
have  no  use  for  the  theologian,  it  is  difficult  not  to  be 
interested  in  the  man.  When  St.  Paul  is  discovered  as 
an  artisan  who  could  not  always  keep  himself  above  the 
poverty  line,  and  when  he  is  found  to  be  most  at  home  in 
the  bustle  of  the  city,  and,  if  one  may  use  such  an 
expression,  rather  at  sea  in  the  country,  then  in  his 
interests  and  in  his  very  limitations,  he  comes  closely 
into  contact  with  modern  conditions.  When  further 
his  epistles  are  seen  to  be,  not  doctrinal  treatises,  but 
genuine  letters,  not  the  systematic  work  of  a  dogmatic 
theologian,  but  the  passionate  thinking  of  a  missionary- 
hero,  grappling  with  moral  difficulties  in  the  lives  of  the 
converts  he  loves,  and  fighting  for  religious  convictions 
which  alone  seem  to  him  to  promise  salvation,  then  we 
begin  to  have  some  inkling  of  the  real  human  interest 
involved  in  much  that  seems  obscure  and  tedious.  Yet 
again  when  we  win  some  insight  into  the  unique  inner 
life  of  this  man,  and  see  him  laying  bare  the  most  sacred 
secrets  of  his  heart  to  help  his  fellows,  then,  as  we  realize 
the  mystic,  even  if  we  do  not  understand,  we  reverence. 


8  INTRODUCTION 

This  little  handful  of  letters  has  become  a  temple  of  God. 
In  her  book  Miss  Wood,  I  think  wisely,  has  dropped  the 
word  "  saint  "  before  "  Paul."  Not  because  the  word  is 
inapplicable,  but  in  order  that  the  reader  may  replace 
it,  not  in  obedience  to  convention,  but  as  the  result  of 
conviction. 

The  way  of  approach  to  the  study  of  St.  Paul  adopted 
in  this  little  book  enables  us  to  appreciate  him  as  a 
man,  a  hero,  and  a  saint,  without  feeling  obliged  to 
take  upon  ourselves  the  full  yoke  of  his  theology.  As 
one  reads  these  pages,  one  realizes  how  much  St.  Paul 
derived  from  his  Jewish  inheritance  and  from  the  world 
around  him.  He  was  decidedly  a  man  of  his  own  time. 
Modern  scholarship  tends  to  discount  some  of  Paul's 
doctrines  and  many  of  the  forms  in  which  his  thought  is 
cast,  on  the  ground  that  such  doctrines  and  forms  of 
thought  belong  to  his  Pharisaic  training,  or  to 
peculiarities  of  the  first  age  of  Christianity,  which  are 
no  longer  authoritative  for  Christian  thinking.  Miss 
Wood  is  in  sympathy  with  this  side  of  modern  scholarship. 
And  even  if  many  scholars  are  sometimes  inclined  to  carry 
this  process  of  discounting  too  far,  yet  in  principle  the 
attempt  to  distinguish  between  ideas  and  expressions 
which  St.  Paul  accepted  as  part  of  Jewish  and  Christian 
tradition,  and  ideas  and  expressions  which  are  vitally 
connected  with  his  central  Christian  experience,  seems 
to  me  to  be  thoroughly  justified.  For  example,  it  is 
clear  that  St.  Paul  adopted  towards  the  Old  Testament 
the  uncritical  attitude  characteristic  of  the  religious 
culture  in  which  he  was  brought  up.  It  was  perfectly 
natural  for  him  to  contrast  Adam  with  Christ,  to  connect 
the  story  of  the  Fall  with  the  doctrine  of  Redemption. 
This  helped  him  to  interpret  to  himself  and  to  others  the 
wonder  and  the  scope  of  Christ's  work,  the  meaning  of; 


INTRODUCTION  9 

redemption.  But  it  must  always  be  remembered  that 
what  he  says  about  the  redeeming  work  of  Christ  is  his 
endeavour  to  explain  his  most  real  and  spiritual  experi- 
ence, while  what  he  says  about  Adam  and  the  Fall 
springs  out  of  no  special  revelation,  but  reflects  the 
ordinary  assumption  of  his  Jewish  education.  The 
application  of  this  is  obvious,  but  important.  It  is 
sometimes  said  that  the  doctrines  of  the  Fall  and 
Redemption  are  inseparable..  Nothing  of  the  kind,  since 
St.  Paul's  thought  about  redemption  is  bound  up  with 
his  own  experience,  and  his  doctrine  of  the  Fall  is  bound 
up  with  his  Jewish  inheritance.  Sin  does  not  cease  to  be 
sin,  and  St.  Paul's  conviction  that  the  gospel  is  the  power 
of  God  unto  salvation,  does  not  cease  to  be  true,  because 
in  setting  forth  the  gospel  St.  Paul,  as  a  matter  of  course, 
assumed  the  historicity  of  Adam,  and  accepted  an 
account  of  the  origin  of  sin  which  certainly  cannot  be 
literally  believed. 

Roughly  speaking,  we  have  to-day  substituted  the 
study  of  the  religious  experience  of  St.  Paul  for  the 
elaboration  of  his  theology,  and  we  use  the  experience 
as  a  test  for  discriminating  between  what  is  passing  and 
what  is  permanent  in  the  theology.  Doctrines  that  are 
simply  part  of  an  old-world  tradition  we  discard.  Old 
thoughts  that  were  revitalized,  and  new  thoughts  that 
were  suggested  by  St.  Paul's  central  experience,  we  may 
suspect  to  possess  a  lasting  value. 

Everything  then  turns  on  the  validity  of  St.  Paul's 
religious  experience.  And  here  we  have  to  face  an 
objection,  on  which  I  may  be  allowed  to  say  something, 
as  Miss  Wood  has  touched  but  lightly  upon  it.  Are  we 
justified  in  attaching  any  value  to  the  religious  experi- 
ence of  this  man  ?  He  was  certainly  a  visionary  and 
probably  an  epileptic.     His  exalted  Christ  in  whom  he 


10  INTRODUCTION 

trusts  may  have  been  merely  the  creation  of  a  sick  man's 
fanc}'.  His  so-called  religious  experience  is  just  a 
series  of  hallucinations.  That  St.  Paul  was  the  victim 
of  his  illusions,  is  no  reason  why  he  should  victimize  us. 
This  is  the  kind  of  demurrer  put  in  by  Mr.  F.  C. 
Conybeare  in  his  "  Myth,  Magic  and  Ritual."  What  is 
to  be  said  to  it  ? 

Let  us  begin  by  admitting  the  facts.  Miss  Wood 
recognises  fully  the  part  played  by  visions  in  the  life 
of  St.  Paul,  and  his  very  capacity  for  visions  suggests 
that  he  was  in  some  degree  an  epileptic.  But  does  this 
suggestion  at  all  account  for  the  man  and  his  visions  ? 
There  is  a  curious  theory  abroad  that  the  worth  of  a 
man's  work  can  be  absolutely  discounted  if  a  man  can 
be  shown  to  have  epileptic  traits.  The  theory  appears 
in  its  naked  absurdity  in  Max  Nordan's  "  Degener- 
ation," where  the  pre-Rapha^lite  painters,  Ruskin,  Tolstoi, 
and  nearly  all  the  great  men  of  the  nineteenth  century 
are  written  down  as  hopeless  degenerates.  Now  genius 
does  not  cease  to  be  genius  because  it  dwells  on  the 
verge  of  insanity.  For  aught  we  know,  a  tendency  to 
epilepsy  may  be  the  condition  of  inspiration.  It  is  un- 
deniable that  many  of  the  greatest  achievements  in  art 
and  literature  and  practical  life  have  been  the  work 
of  men  of  this  type.  We  have  ever}^  reason  to  believe 
God  uses  such  men  to  great  ends.  You  cannot  dismiss 
St.  Paul  by  calling  him  an  epileptic.  If  he  was  beside 
himself,  most  emphatically  it  was  to  God. 

Moreover,  while  his  power  to  see  visions  may 
be  connected  with  some  physical  defect,  this  obviously 
did  not  occasion  the  visions  he  actually  had.  We 
have  still  to  explain  the  character  and  content, 
particularly  of  the  supreme  vision  on  the  Damascus 
road.      We    have    still    to    account   for   the   strength 


INTRODUCTION  II 

and  influence  of  that  transforming  experience. 
Above  all,  we  have  still  to  reckon  with  the  inter- 
pretation and  the  value  St.  Paul  set  upon  it.  The 
important  thing  is  not  what  we  make  of  the  visions, 
but  what  the  vision  made  of  St.  Paul.  By  that  vision 
God  changed  the  current  and  purpose  of  his  life.  St. 
Paul  knew  that  God  had  called  him.  That  made  him 
a  missionary.  He  knew  that  God  was  in  Christ 
reconciling  the  world  to  Himself.  That  gave  him  a 
gospel.  I  do  not  think  we  shall  make  much  progress 
by  ignoring  this  man's  fundamental  convictions.  At 
least  we  need  to  share  his  experience.  God  called  him 
to  the  ministry  of  reconciliation.  Has  He  called  us  ? 
The  love  of  Christ  overmastered  St.  Paul.  Has  the 
love  of  Christ  overmastered  us  ? 

H.G.W. 
Good  Friday,  1913. 


THE 

LIFE  AND  MINISTRY  OF  PAUL 

CHAPTER  I 

SOURCES    FOR   THE    LIFE    OF    PAUL 

For  knowledge  of  Paul  we  have  the  best  possible  sources, 
namely,  some  of  Paul's  own  letters.  True  letters  might 
be  called  cross-sections  of  actual  life,  since  they  enable 
one  to  look  directly  into  the  complex  of  thoughts  and 
feelings  that  are  the  expression  of  the  personality  of  the 
writer.  A  collection  of  letters  to  different  people  offers 
the  best  means  of  making  the  acquaintance  of  a  person 
with  whom  one  cannot  speak  face  to  face.  In  Paul's 
letters  we  can  come  into  touch  with  many  sides  of  his 
personalit}^  ;  we  can  see  what  things  moved  him  to 
indignation,  sorrow  or  joy,  and  which  interests  were 
primar}^  in  his  life. 

We  are  especially  fortunate,  too,  in  having  definite 
evidence  in  the  discoveries  of  recent  years  that  Paul's 
are  true  letters  ;  not  formal  epistles.  In  the  first  century, 
all  over  the  Roman  Empire,  the  public  documents, 
various  kinds  of  literature,  letters,  etc.,  were  written 
on  papyrus  sheets  made  from  strips  of  the  pith  of  the 
papyrus  plant  pasted  together.^  The  papyrus  was 
very  brittle,  and  therefore  easily  perished  except  under 
special  conditions.  Now  the  only  place  where  Nature 
provided  conditions  for  preserving  the  papjTi  was  in 

1  For  more  detailed  description  of  the  making  of  papyri  see 
Gregory's  "  Canon  and  Text  of  the  New  Testament,"  or  Deiss- 
man's  "  Light  from  the  East,"  or  Milligan's  "  Commentary  on 
T  h  essalonians . " 

13 


14  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

Egypt.  Tlierc  the  dry  sand  received  the  fragments  of 
books,  letters  and  other  writings,  that  were  thought- 
lessly thrown  away,  and  buried  them  safely.  Thus 
it  came  about  that  for  centuries  all  knowledge  of  the 
letter-writing  common  in  Paul's  day,  and,  indeed,  of 
the  language  of  the  common  people,  was  lost.  People, 
therefore,  thought  that  the  language  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment was  "  the  language  of  the  Holy  Spirit  found  in 
the  sacred  writings  and  never  profaned  by  common 
use, "2  and  that  the  letters  of  Paul  were  peculiar 
theological  documents.  But  now  that  enterprising 
excavators  have  unearthed  thousands  of  papyri  pre- 
served by  Mother  Nature  in  Egypt,  we  know  that  the 
New  Testament  was  a  book  written  for  the  common 
people  in  the  language  of  the  market-place  and  the 
home,  and  that  Paul's  "  epistles  "  are  true  letters  written 
in  the  forms  and  language  common  among  the  people 
to  whom  he  wrote. ^ 

Here  are  a  few  titles  indicating  the  contents  of  some 
of  the  discovered  letters  showing  from  how  wide  a  range 
of  life  they  come  :  Petition  to  the  King  ;  letter  con- 
cerning a  strike  of  the  slaves  working  in  a  stone  quarry  ; 
public  notice  of  the  loss  of  sheep  ;  a  declaration  on 
oath  that  certain  Syrian  cloths  were  lost  by  the  sinking 
of  the  ship  ;  letter  to  a  public  official  authorizing  him 
to  pay  certain  weavers  of  cloths  (this  and  other  letters 
indicate  that  the  weaving  business  was  managed  by  the 
government)  ;  letter  about  the  priestly  revenues  ; 
letter  concerning  the  export  duty  on  two  jars  of  wine  ; 
letter  concerning  the  sale  of  wheat  ;  letter  about  the 
payments  of  the  physician  tax  ;    receipt  for  tax  levied 

2  Quoted  in  ^loulton's  "  Grammar  of  New  Testament 
Greek,"  p.  3. 

^  It  is  possible  that  Romans,  Colossians  and  Ephesians  should 
be  given  the  more  formal  name  "  epistle,"  but  their  more  formal 
character  is  due  chiefly  to  the  fact  that  they  are  written  to  people 
with  whom  Paul  is  not  acquainted  personally.  "  True  letters  " 
are  written  to  specific  people  ;  epistles  are  literary  productions 
for  circulation  put  into  the  letter  form. 


SOURCES    FOR    THE    LIFE    OF    PAUL  I5 

for  maintenance  of  public  baths  ;  account  of  a  govern- 
ment post  office  official  ;  a  banker's  account  ;  account 
of  taxes  on  sacrifices  and  wool  ;*  a  marriage  contract  ; 
a  deed  of  divorce  ;  a  notice  of  death ;  a  will ;  an  invita- 
tion to  a  festival  ;  preparations  for  a  Roman  visitor  ; 
invitation  to  a  dinner  ;  question  to  the  oracle,  etc.,  etc., 
etc.  These  documents  from  everyday  life  contain  many 
words  hitherto  thought  to  be  peculiar  to  the  New 
Testament. 

Furthermore,  many  of  the  letters  show  how  perfectly 
natural  Paul's  letters  must  have  seemed  to  those  who 
received  them.  As  examples  of  the  letters  here  are 
four  :  (i)  a  letter  of  remonstrance  from  a  father  to  a 
son  ;  (2)  a  letter  of  a  dutiful  son  who  has  recently  left 
home  ;  (3)  the  letter  of  a  rather  impudent  little  boy 
to  his  father  ;  (4)  the  letter  of  a  repentant  prodigal 
son  to  his  mother. 

(i)  First  century  A. D. 

"  Hermocrates  to  Chaeras  his  son,  greeting.  First  of 
all  I  pray  that  you  may  be  in  health  .  .  .&  and  I 
beg  you  ...  to  write  regarding  your  health,  and 
whatever  you  wish.  Already  indeed  I  have  written 
regarding  the  .  .  .  and  you  neither  answered  nor 
came,  and  now,  if  you  do  not  come,  I  run  the  risk  of 
losing  the  lot  (of  land)  which  I  possess.  Our  partner 
has  taken  no  share  in'  the  work,  for  not  only  was  the  well 
not  cleaned  out,  but  in  addition  the  water-channel  was 
choked  with  sand,  and  the  whole  land  is  unfilled.  No 
tenant  was  willing  to  work  it,  only  I  continue  pa3dng 
the  public  taxes,  without  getting  back  anything  in 
return.  There  is  hardly  a  single  plot  that  the  water 
will  irrigate.  Therefore,  you  must  come,  otherwise 
there  is  a  risk  that  the  plants  perish.  Your  sister 
Helene  greets  you,  and  your  mother  reproaches  you 
because  you  have  never  answered  her.  Especially 
security    is    demanded    by    the    taxgatherers    because 

*  These  titles  are  taken  from  \'ol.  I.  of  the  Hibeh  Papyri,  and 
those  which  follow  from  Milligan's  "  Greek  Papyri." 
^  The  spacing  indicates  where  the  pap\^rus  is  broken. 


1 6  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

you  did  not  send  the  taxgatherers  to  you  (?)  ;  but 
now  also  send  to  her.  I  pray  that  you  may  be  well. 
Pauni  9: 

"  (Addressed)  Deliver  from  Hermocrates  to  Chaeras 
his  son." 

(2)  Second  century  a.d. 

"  Apion  to  Epimachus  his  father  and  lord  heartiest 
greetings.  First  of  all  I  pray  that  you  are  in  health 
and  continuall}^  prosper,  and  fare  well  with  my  sister 
and  her  daughter  and  my  brother.  I  thank  the  lord 
Serapis  that  when  I  was  in  danger  at  sea  he  saved  me. 
Straightway  when  I  entered  Misenum  I  received  my 
travelling  money  from  Caesar,  three  gold  pieces.  And 
I  am  well.  I  beg  you,  therefore,  my  lord  father,  write 
me  a  few  lines,  first  regarding  3'our  health,  secondly 
regarding  that  of  my  brother  and  sister,  thirdly  that  I 
may  kiss  your  hand,  because  you  have  brought  me  up 
well,  and  on  this  account  I  hope  to  be  quickly  promoted, 
if  the  gods  will.  Give  many  greetings  to  Capito  and  to 
my  brother  and  sister,  and  to  Serenilla,  and  my  friends. 
I  send  you  a  little  portrait  of  myself  at  the  hands  of 
Euctemon.  And  my  (military)  name  is  Anton(i)us 
Maximus.     I  pray  for  your  good  health. 

"  Company  Athenonike." 

"  Serenus  the  son  of  Agathos  Daemon  greets  you  .  .  . 
and  Turbo  the  son  of  Gallonius  and. 

"  (Addressed)  To  Philadelphia  for  Epimachus  from 
his  son  Apion." 

(3)  Second  or  third  century  a.d.  (Can  be  seen  in 
the  Bodleian  library  at  Oxford.) 

"  Theon  to  Theon  his  father,  greeting.  You  did  a 
fine  thing  !  You  have  not  taken  me  away  along  with 
you  to  the  city  !  If  you  refuse  to  take  me  along  with 
you  to  Alexandria,  I  won't  write  you  a  letter,  or  speak 
to  3^ou,  or  wish  you  health.  And  if  you  do  go  to  Alex- 
andria, I  won't  take  your  hand,  or  greet  you  again 
henceforth.  If  3'ou  refuse  to  take  me,  that's  what's 
up  !     And  my  mother  said  to  Archelaus,  '  He  upsets 


J 


SOURCES  FOR  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL         I7 

me  ;  off  with  him  !  '  But  you  did  a  fine  thing  !  You 
sent  me  gifts,  great  ones,  husks  !  They  deceived  us 
there  on  the  12th,  when  you  sailed.  Send  for  me  then, 
I  beseech  you.  If  you  do  not  send,  I  won't  eat,  won't 
drink.     There  now  !     I  pray  for  your  health.     Tubi  18. 

"  (Addressed)  Deliver  to  Theon  from  Theonas  his 
son." 

(4)  Second  century  a.d. 

"  Antoni(u)s  Longus  to  Nilous  his  mother  many 
greetings.  Continually  I  pray  for  your  health.  Suppli- 
cation on  your  behalf  I  direct  each  day  to  the  Lord 
Serapis.  I  wish  you  to  know  that  I  had  no  hope  that 
you  would  come  up  to  the  metropolis.  On  this  account 
neither  did  I  enter  into  the  city.  But  I  was  ashamed 
to  come  to  Karamis,  because  I  am  going  about  in  rags. 
I  wrote  you  that  I  am  naked.  I  beseech  you,  mother, 
be  reconciled  to  me.  But  I  know  what  I  have  brought 
upon  myself.  Punished  I  have  been  in  my  case.  I  know 
that  I  have  sinned.  I  heard  from  Postumos  who  met 
you  in  the  Arsinoite  nome,  and  unreasonably  related  all 
to  you.  Do  you  not  know  that  I  would  rather  be  a 
cripple  than  be  conscious  that  I  am  still  owing  anyone 
an  obolus  .  .  .  come  yourself  ...  I  have 
heard  that  ...  I  beseech  you  ...  I  almost 
.     .     .     I  beseech  you      ...     I   will     .     .     .      not 

.     .     otherwise. 

"  (Addressed)  To  .  .  .  his  mother  from  An- 
tonius  Longus  her  son.^ 

One  has  only  to  put  beside  these  letters  some  of  the 
phrases  from  Paul's  letters  to  see  that  he  used  the 
common  forms  for  polite  letter-writing  in  his  day.  These 
forms  seem  to  prescribe  that  one  should  begin  with 
greetings,  and  that,  next,  one  should  offer  thanksgiving 
and  prayer  for  the  welfare  of  those  to  whom  one  writes  ; 
the  special  contents  of  the  letter  might  then  be  intro- 
duced and  the  closing  should  consist  of  salutations  and 

*  These  letters  have  been  taken  from  Milligan's  "  Greek 
Papyri,"  where  he  collects  some  of  the  most  interesting  discoveries. 
See  also  Deissman's  "  Light  from  the  East." 


l8  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

flood  Irishes.  Note  these  elements  in  the  following 
Pauline  letters  :  — 

I  Thcssalonians. 

(i)  Greetings.  "  Paul  and  Silvanus  and  Timothy, 
unto  the  church  of  the  Thcssalonians.  .  .  Grace  to 
you  and  peace  "  (i.  :  ). 

(2)  Thanksgiving  and  prayer.  "  We  give  thanks 
to  God  always  for  you  all  making  mention  of  you  all  in 
01. r  prayers  "  (i.  2). 

(3)  Special  contents. 

(4)  Salutations.     "Salute  all  the  brethren  "  (v.  26). 

(5)  Good  wishes.  "  The  grace  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  be  with  you  "  (v,  28). 

I  Corinthians  : 

(i)  Greetings.     "Paul     .     .     .     and  Sosthenes  our 
brother,    unto    the    church     ...     at    Corinth. 
Grace  to  you  and  peace  "  (i.  1-3). 

(2)  Thanksgiving  and  prayer.  "  I  thank  my  God 
always  concerning  you  "  (i.  4). 

(3)  Special  contents. 

(4)  Salutations.  "  The  churches  of  Asia  salute  you. 
Aquila  and  Priscilla  salute  3'ou  much  in  the  Lord, 
with  the  church  that  is  in  their  house.  All  the  brethren 
salute  you.  .  .  The  salutation  of  me  Paul  with 
mine  own  hand  "  (xvi.  IQ-21). 

(5)  Good  wishes.  "  The  grace  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  be  with  you.  My  love  be  with  you  all  in  Christ 
Jesus  "  (xvi.  23-24). 

Of  course  no  good  letter-writer  keeps  exactly  to  the 
letter- writing  form.  The  form  is  his  servant,  not  his 
master.  Under  special  stress  of  feeling  he  may  omit 
some  of  the  usual  parts  of  a  letter.  So  Theon,^  in  his 
haste  to  express  his  indignation  to  his  father,  omits  the 
thanksgiving  and  prayer  as  Paul  does  in  his  eagerness 
to  correct  the  Galatians.s  Or  special  circumstances  or 
feeling  will  cause  the  change  of  some  of  the  forms. 
Thus,  instead  of  a  salutation  from  his  mother,  Chaeras 

^  Compare  p.  3.  *  Gal.  i.  6. 


SOURCES    FOR    THE    LIFE    OF    PAUL    ^  1 9 

receives,  "  Your  mother  reproaches  you,"^  since  he  had 
merited  reproach.  In  the  same  way  the  special  relation- 
ship of  Paul  to  those  who  had  become  Christians  through 
him,  and  his  special  care  for  their  growth  in  grace  led 
him  to  say  at  the  beginning  of  his  letters,  "  Grace  to  you 
and  peace  from  God,"io  instead  of  the  common 
"Greeting."  And  so  thoroughly  in  accordance  with 
his  feeling  was  the  thanksgiving  and  prayer  that  he 
often  expanded  it  at  length  with  evidently  heartfelt 
phrases. 11  It  is  interesting  also  to  note  that  Paul  never 
closes  his  letters  with  "  I  pray  for  your  health  "  or 
"  Above  all  take  care  of  yourself,"  so  frequent  in  the 
newly-discovered  letters.  Above  all  to  Paul  is  the 
spiritual  health  of  his  Christian  friends  ;  he  ends  his 
letters  therefore  not  with  health-wishes,  but  with  such 
expressions  as,  "  The  grace  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
be  with  your  spirit. "i^ 

Interesting,  however,  as  are  these  points  of  style  in 
Paul's  letters  it  is  naturally  from  the  special  contents  of 
each  that  we  shall  get  most  light  upon  his  life  and 
ministry.  These,  accordingly,  shall  be  our  chief  source. 
But,  as  letters  are  apt  to  mention  the  events  of  a  life 
only  incidentally,  it  would  be  impossible,  from  Paul's 
letters  alone,  to  reconstruct  the  events  of  his  life.  To 
this  end,  the  Book  of  Acts  offers  the  most  important 
help.  It  is  primarily  a  history  of  the  early  Christian 
Church,  and  Paul  is  introduced  only  as  one  of  its  founders. 
In  the  latter  part  of  the  book,  however,  the  writer  gives 
his  attention  so  wholly  to  Paul  that  it  suggests  the 
probability  that  it  was  written  by  someone  who  knew 
much  more  about  the  churches  in  the  Gentile  world 
where  Paul  worked  than  elsewhere.  Indeed,  there  are 
many  indications  that  Acts  was  written  by  a  friend  and 

'  Cf.  p.  3. 

^^  The  Greek  word  for  greeting,  chat  yd  11,  sounds  somewhat 
like  the  Greek  word  for  grace.  cJinris.  The  word  peace  was 
common  as  a  greeting  among  Jews. 

^^  See  I  Thess.  i.  2-5  ;    i  Cor.  i.  4-9  ;    Philemon  4-7. 

^  Gal.  vi.   18  ;    Philemon  25 


20  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

companion  of  Panl  who  has  imbedded  his  diary,  or  at 
least  his  personal  reminiscences,  in  his  book.  It  seems 
probable  that  we  can  tell  when  the  writer  was  an  eye- 
witness of  the  events  which  he  narrates  by  noting  where 
he  suddenly,  in  a  most  extraordinary  manner,  changes 
from   "  they  \  to  "  ze'e  "  thus  : 

"  They  went  through  the  region  of  Phrygia  "... 
"  they  came  down  to  Troas  "  .  .  ''we  sought  to  go 
forth  into  Macedonia. "i-^ 

Who,  then,  was  this  writer  who  knew  part  of  the 
story  of  Paul  at  first  hand  ?  An  answer  to  this  question 
is  suggested  by  the  introduction  to  his  book  : 

"  The  former  treatise  I  made,  O  Theophilus,  concern- 
ing all  that  Jesus  began  both  to  do  and  to  teach. "i^ 

To  what "  former  treatise  "  does  he  refer  ?  Evidently, 
it  was  an  account  of  the  life  of  Jesus,  and  our  Gospel  of 
Luke  is  addressed  to  the  "  most  excellent  Theophilus." 
Could  the  author  of  Acts,  then,  be  Luke  P^^ 

^^  Acts  xvi.  6-IO.  The  so-called  "  we-sections  "  are  as  follows  : 
(I)  Acts  xvi.  10-17;  (2)  Acts  XX.  7-16,  xxi.  1-18;  {3)  Acts 
xxvii.  I,  xxviii.  16.  There  are  various  other  possible  explana- 
tions of  the  introduction  of  these  "we  sections."  One  is,  that  the 
author  of  Acts  was  putting  together  written  documents  which  he 
had  gathered  together,  and  that  one  of  these  said  "  We."  and  that 
he  embedded  it  unaltered.  But  the  author  of  such  a  well-written 
book  as  Acts  would  hardly  have  done  that  without  some 
explanation  as  to  who  he  thought  this  first-hand  witness  was. 
If,  however,  it  were  himself,  he  might  expect  people  to  under- 
stand it  without  explanation.  At  least  this  seems  the  most 
natural  explanation,  and  it  is  supported  by  the  fact  that  a  careful 
study  of  the  words  and  phrases  peculiar  to  this  writer  shows  that 
a  good  many  of  them  occur  in  these  "  we  sections,"  as  well  as 
in  the  rest  of  the  book.  This,  of  course,  shows  that  the  same 
man  wrote  both.     See  Haw  kin's  "  Horae  Synoptical,"  p.  182-189. 

^*  Acts  i.  I. 

^^  That  Luke  wrote  the  Gospel  of  Luke  we  have  no  certain  proof, 
but  a  uniform  tradition  going  back  to  about  100  a.d.  speaks  of  the 
Gospel  of  Luke  and  the  earliest  MSS.  call  it  the  Gospel  according 
to  Luke.  It  is  hard  to  account  for  this  early  tradition,  especially 
since  Luke  was  not  a  disciple  of  Jesus,  unless  he  wrote  the 
Gospel.  That  Luke  and  Acts  are  by  the  same  author  is  shown 
also  by  a  study  of  their  style.  There  are  some  fifty-eight  words 
and  various  phrases  and  marks  of    style  found  in  the    New 


SOUPXES    FOR    THE    LIFE    OF    PAUL  21 

What  does  Paul  say  in  his  letters  concerning  Luke  ? 
When  in  prison  in  Rome  Paul  speaks  of  one  of  his  com- 
panions, as,  "  Luke,  the  beloved  physician, "^^  and  calls 
him  one  of  his  "  fellow-workers. "i^  Luke  also  seems  to 
have  remained  alone  with  Paul  when  others  had  forsaken 
him. 18  Now  the  longest  of  the  "  we  sections"  is  the 
account  of  the  journey  to  Rome  ;  it  would  be  natural, 
therefore,  to  look  for  the  author  at  Rome,  and  here  we  find 
Luke  according  to  Paul's  letters.  Aristarchus  also  sailed 
to  Rome  with  the  author  of  the  "  we  sections,"!^  and 
Paul  speaks  of  him  in  Romero  ;  it  is  probable,  therefore, 
that  both  of  his  ship-companions  are  there.  Of  the 
other  Roman  companions  of  Paul,  Jesus  Justus, 
Tychicus,  Demas,  Crescens,  Eubulus,  Pudens,  Linus, 
etc.,  none  seem  more  probable  than  Luke.  None  is  men- 
tioned as  so  dear  to  Paul  as  "  Luke,  the  beloved  phy- 
sician." Therefore  we  will  call  our  author  of  the  his- 
tor}^  of  Paul,  Luke,  the  fellow-traveller  of  Paul,  though 
the  conclusion  cannot  be  said  to  be  more  than  a  strong 
probability. 21 

The  date  of  the  composition  of  Acts  is  uncertain  ;  the 
limits  are  between  62  and  125  a. 0^2.  One  important 
thing  to  note  is  that  Luke  did  not  have  any  of  Paul's 
letters  at  hand,  for  his  accounts  have  not  been  in- 
fluenced by  accounts  of  the  same  events  in  the  letters 
as  following  comparisons  will  make  evident.   This  means 

Testament  only  in  Acts  and  the  Gospel  of  Luke.  See  Haw  kin's 
"  Horae  Synopticae,"  pp.  174-176. 

i«  Col.  iv.  14. 

^'  Philemon  24. 

^^  2  Tim.  iv.  II. 

"  Act^  xxvii.  2. 

^°  Philemon  24. 

^^  Scholars  are  very  far  from  being  agreed  upon  this  conclusion. 
For  the  arguments  against  Luke  as  the  author  of  Acts  see 
McGiffert,  p.  237,  ff.,  Jiilicher's  "  Introduction  to  New  Testament  " 
etc.  For  details  in  the  defence  of  Luke  as  the  author  of  Acts, 
see  Harnack's  "  Luke,  the  Physician,"  and  "  The  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,"  Hobart's,  "The  Medical  Language  of  St.  Luke," 
Peake's  "  Critical  Introduction  to  New  Testament,"  etc.,  etc. 

^  See  Table  of  Dates  and  ch.  XX.,  p.  2<^2. 


22  THI-:    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

that  we  have  two  independent  witnesses  for  Paul's  life, 
Paul  himself  and  his  friend  Luke. 

How,  then,  shall  we  use  these  two  chief  sources  for 
Paul's  life  and  ministry  ?  It  is  evident  that  wherever 
the  two  agree  there  will  be  double  confirmation  of  the 
event,  but  wherever  they  disagree  we  must  choose  Paul's 
own  account  as  most  authentic.  Luke  could  much 
more  easily  be  mistaken  than  Paul,  especially  as  Luke 
w'as  with  him  during  only  a  small  ])art  of  his  work. 
Our  method  of  i)rocedure  then  must  be  as  follows  : 

The  first  and  basic  element  of  our  narrative  we  must 
make  the  material  in  Paul's  letters. 

Second,  we  will  carefully  compare  Luke's  account 
of  the  same  events  and  add  such  features  of  the  picture 
as  he  mentions  if  they  are  consistent  with  Paul's  account. 

Third,  such  narratives  as  Luke  alone  gives  we  shall  add 
to  our  story  because  it  is  probable  that  Paul's  friend 
and  companion  would  be  able  to  learn  if  not  specific 
details  at  least  the  general  facts  about  his  ministry,  and 
whenever  the  use  of  "  we  "  indicates  that  Luke  himself 
was  present  the  narration  will  have  special  value. 

Fourth,  we  shall  confine  ourselves  almost  entireh-  to 
Paul's  letters  for  the  understanding  of  his  thought, 
for  it  is  impossible  to  know  when  Luke  is  giving  us  the 
exact  words  of  Paul's  speeches  and  when  he  is  reporting 
freely  a  general  outline. 

Fifth,  we  shall  keep  our  eyes  open  for  any  light  upon 
the  places  and  conditions  in  which  Paul  worked  which 
the  inscriptions  and  writings  of  the  early  centuries  may 
give. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  we  shall  find  that  Paul's  letters 
tell  us  much  more  about  his  inner  life  than  about  events 
and  this  means  that  it  is  his  inner  life  that  we  know 
most  accurately.  We  may  be  glad  that  this  is  so  because 
it  is  his  inner  life  that  makes  his  outer  life  of  an}'  sig- 
nificance. Even  of  his  outer  life,  however,  we  shall 
try  to  find  out  all  we  can  because  the  circumstances  and 
events  he  had  to  encounter  help  us  to  understand  the 
greatness  of  his  personality. 


CHAPTER  II 

EARLY   ENVIRONMENT 

"It  was  the  good  pleasure  of  God  who  separated  me 
even  from  my  mother's  womb,  and  called  me  through 
His  grace,  to  reveal  his  Son  in  me."^ 

These  are  Paul's  words  about  his  birth.  He  has 
nothing  to  say  about  place  or  time  ;  the  fact  of  interest 
to  him  was  that  God  was  present  at  the  dawning  of 
his  life.  Looking  back  from  the  vantage  point  of  his 
later  birth  into  the  fellowship  of  Jesus  Christ:^  he  felt 
that  God  had  surrounded  his  life  from  the  very  beginning 
with  His  grace.  His  words  remind  one  of  those  of  the 
prophet  Jeremiah  who  felt  that  God  had  known  him 
even  before  his  birth  f  they  indicate,  too,  that  in  Paul 
we^shall  make  the  acquaintance  of  one  to  whom  events 
are  interesting  chiefly  from  their  God-ward  side. 

What  Paul  says  further  concerning  his  family  shows 
the  same  interest  in  his  religious  inheritance.  With 
some  apology  for  his  seeming  boastfulness  he  sa3's  : 

"  Yet  whereinsoever  any  is  bold  (I  speak  in  foolish- 
ness), I  am  bold  also.  Are  they  Hebrews  ?  So  am  I. 
Are  they  Israelites  ?  So  am  I.  Are  they  the  seed  of 
Abraham  ?     So   am   I."* 

"If  any  other  man  thinketh  to  have  confidence  in 
the  flesh,  I  yet  more  ;  circumcised  the  eighth  day,  of 
the  stock  of  Israel,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  a  Hebrew 
of   Hebrews."^ 

1  Gal.  i.  15,  16.  This  is  Paul's  only  reference  to  his  mother, 
bnt  certainly  it  reflects  reverence  for  her.  Note  also  his  affec- 
tionate use  of  the  name  mother  in  Rom.  xvi.  13.  There  is  no  specific 
mention  of  his  father,  but  the  "traditions  of  my  fathers"  (Gal. 
i.  14)  includes  what  his  own  father  had  taught  him.  (See  also 
eh.  VII.,  p.  66.)  There  was  at  least  one  sister  (Acts  xxiii.  16, 
see  p.  27). 

2  I  Cor.  i.  9.  3  Jar.  i.  5.  *  2  Cor,  xi.  21,  22. 
^  Thil.  iii.  4,  5.     Compare  Rom.  xi.  i. 


24  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

Paul  grew  up,  then,  in  a  Jewish  household.  He  was 
probably  named  for  Israel's  first  king,  Saul,"  who  was  also 
of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  But  he  has  also  the  Latin  name 
Paul.  Where,  then,  did  this  boy  Saul  or  Paul,  grow  up  ? 
Was  there  any  place  where  one  could  live  as  a  "  Hebrew 
of  the  Hebrews  "  and  still  be  in  touch  with  the  Graeco- 
Roman  world  as  Paul's  letters  written  in  Greek  show 
that  he  was  ?  Yes,  the  great  Roman  Empire  had 
reached  her  arms  around  the  Mediterranean  Sea  uniting 
into  one  great  family  people  of  many  nations,  teaching 
them  to  speak  with  one  another  in  the  Greek  tongue, 
and  thus  to  share  each  other's  treasures  of  mind  and 
heart.  The  Jews  seem  to  have  added  their  contribution 
in  every  part  of  the  Empire.  Josephus,''  the  Jewish 
historian,  says,  "  There  is  no  people  in  the  world  which 
does  not  contain  some  part  of  us."  Also  Strabo,  the 
Greek  geographer,^  says  :  "  Now  the  Jews  are  already 
gotten  into  all  cities  ;  and  it  is  hard  to  find  a  place  in 
the  habitable  earth  that  hath  not  admitted  this  tribe 
of  men  and  is  not  possessed  b\^  them." 

Almost  anywhere  in  the  Roman  Empire,  then,  Paul 
might  have  grown  up,  and,  no  doubt,  Luke  is  right  when 
he  represents  Paul  as  saying  : 

"  I  am  a  Jew,  of  Tarsus  in  Cilicia,  a  citizen  of  no  mean 
city,'"-'  and  "  I  am  a  Roman  born. "^°  Josephus  speaks 
of  "  Jews  who  are  citizens  of  Rome  and  follow  the 
Jewish  religious  rites  yet  live  .  .  .  free  from  going 
into  the  army."^^ 

Paul's  father,  then,  must  have  been  an  important 
member  of  the  Jewish  colony  of  Tarsus,  for  he  was  either 
wealthy  enough  to  have  purchased  the  privilege  of 
Roman  citizenship  or  it  had  been  given  to  him  or  his 
ancestors  for  some  service.  We  know  absolutely 
nothing  more  of  Paul's  early  life  in  Tarsus  ;   neverthe- 

^  Acts  viii.  I. 

^  Josephus  "  Wars,"  II  :  xvi.  4.      Josephus  lived  37-95  a.d. 

^  Quoted  by  Josephus  "  Antiquities,"  XIV.,  vii.  2. 

^  Acts  xxi.  39  ;    see  xxii,  3.  ^^  Acts  xxii.  28. 

"  Josephus,  "  Antiquities,"  XIV.,  x.,  13,  14. 


I 


EARLY   ENVIRONMENT  25 

less  it  will  be  of  interest  to  look  at  the  city  and  its 
surroundings,  in  his  day,  and  to  gather  such  evidence 
as  we  can  about  the  Jewish  and  Gentile  life  there,  because 
early  environment  is  powerful  in  determining  the 
possibilities  of  a  life. 

' '  Tarsus  is  situated  in  a  plain .  .  .  The  Cydnus  flows 
through  the  middle  of  it,  close  by  the  gymnasium  of 
the  young  men.  As  the  source  is  not  far  distant,  and 
the  stream  passing  through  a  deep  valley,  then  flows 
immediately  into  the  cit}',  the  water  is  cold  and  rapid 
in  its  course  ;  hence  it  is  of  advantage  to  men  and  beasts 
affected  with  swellings  of  the  sinews,  fluxions  and 
gout."  So  wrote,  Strabo,  the  "  Geographer  "'^  who  must 
have  visited  Tarsus  not  far  from  Paul's  day.  Indeed, 
he  probably  knew  it  well,  for  he  was  bom  in  Pontus 
in  north  Asia  Minor,  and  he  may  have  later  lived  just 
north  of  Tarsus  since  Josephus  alwa^^s  calls  him  "  the 
Cappadocian."^^ 

It  is  always  interesting  to  know  about  the  river  of  a 
town  because  it  seems  like  a  living  thing  that  has  taken 
part  in  the  continuously  flowing  life  of  the  community. 
If  the  old  and  sick  cared  about  the  river  as  Strabo  says, 
how  much  more  would  the  young  and  healthy  rejoice  in 
its  clear,  rapid  water.  "  The  gymnasium  of  the  young 
men  "  was  on  its  banks  and  they  would  certainly  often 
take  a  plunge  into  the  stream.  Since  Paul  belonged  to 
a  strict  Jewish  family  his  parents  would  never  have 
sent  him  to  that  "  gymnasium  of  the  young  men,"  but 
he  must  often  have  seen  it,  and  perhaps  the  synagogue 
for  young  Jewish  men  was  somewhere  along  the  river, 
too,^^  since  it  would  be  convenient  for  their  many 
ceremonial  washings.  Perhaps  as  early  as  seven  years 
old  Paul  would  begin  to  go  to  school,  for  the  Talmud 
says  that  "  Joshua  ben  Gambia  came  and  enacted 
that  teachers  should  be  appointed  in  every  province 

^2  "  The  Geography  of  Strabo,"  XIV.,  v.  12.  Strabo  was  born 
about  63  B.C.,  and  died  after  21  a.d. 

^^  Josephus  "  Antiquities,"  XIV.,  vii.  2. 

^*  Acts  xvi.  13.  The  place  of  prayer  in  Philippi  was  "by 
the  river." 


26  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

and  in  every  town,  and  children  of  six  or  seven  vears 
old  were  brought  to  them."^'  What  he  learned  in  the 
Jewish  school  for  boys  would  be  chiefly  a  continuation 
of  what  he  was  learning  in  his  home.  As  soon  as  a 
child  could  lisp  a  few  words  he  would  be  taught  to  say  : 
"  Hear,  O  Israel,  for  the  Lord  our  God  is  one  Lord." 
As  fast  as  possible  he  would  learn  the  rest  of  Deut. 
vi.  4-9  and  xi.  3-21  and  Num.  xv.  37-41^^.  As  he  learned 
these  words  he  would  see  them  entirely  literally  carried 
out  around  him.  Some  of  the  sacred  words  were  put 
into  little  leather  cases  attached  to  straps  called  phy- 
lacteries^^  so  that  all  the  men  might  literally  "  bind  them 
for  a  sign  upon  their  hands  and  wear  them  '  as  frontlets  ' 
between  their  eyes."  Every  day  the  little  boy  would 
see  this  done,  and  he  would  know  that  the  same  words 
were  written  on  the  door  posts  and  on  the  gates.  Often 
as  the}^  sat  "  in  the  house,"  or  walked  "  by  the  way  " 
the  boy's  father  or  teacher  would  speak  to  him  of  the 
Law  and  of  Israel's  God  whose  name  was  too  sacred  to 
be  pronounced  and  toward  whose  Holy  City  they  must 
look  when  saying  pravcrs.  \\  hat  impression  would  all 
this  make  upon  a  child's  mind  ?  Certainly  God  would 
be  a  reality  to  him  as  a  Majestic  and  perhaps  Terrible 
One  whose  laws  must  be  obeyed.  Josephus  in  speaking 
of  the  effect  of  this  early  Jewish  training  says,  "  Since 
we  learn  them  (the  laws)  from  our  first  consciousness  we 
have  them  as  it  were  graven  on  our  souls, "^^  and  Philo^^ 
sa^'s,  "  They  are  taught,  so  to  speak,  from  their  swaddling 
clothes  to  believe  in  God  the  one  Father  and  Creator 

^^  Schiirer,  "  History  of  the  Jews,"  Div.  II.,  VoL  II.,  p.  49. 
It  is  probable  that  public  schools  for  Jewish  boys  were 
organized  as  early  as  75  B.C.,  when  Alexandra,  the  one  woman 
ruler,  had  control.  Joshua  ben  Gambia  lived  65  a.d.,  but  his 
words  sho  ,v  that  schools  had  spread  extensively  before  his  time. 

1^  Read  these  passages  through  to  sec  tlie  central  interest  of 
their  education. 

"  Matt,  xxiii.  5.  "  'Jhey  make  broad  their  phylacteries." 
This  shows  that  they  were  in  use  in  Paul's  day. 

^*  Josephus  "  Against  Apion,"  ii.  19. 

19  Schiirer,  "Hist,  of  the  Jews,"  Div.  II.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  54. 


EARLY   ENVIRONMENT  27 

of  the  world."  Certainly  this  deeply  imprinted  idea 
of  the  One  Eternal  God  which  Paul  must  have  received 
in  his  home  and  school  in  Tarsus  in  early  childhood^o  was 
invaluable  to  him,  and  formed  the  basis  of  all  his 
later  development. 

But  Tarsus  had  not  only  the  river  Cydnus  with  schools 
upon  its  banks  and  perhaps  shops  and  other  indica- 
tions of  the  activities  of  the  people  but  to  the  south, 
only  ten  miles  away,  it  had  the  sea,  and  to  the  north 
little  more  than  twenty  miles  away,  the  snow-capped 
mountains  of  the  Taurus.  It  was  "  a  city  with  its" 
feet  resting  on  a  great  inland  harbour,  and  its  head 
reaching  up  to  the  hills. ''-^  The  Cydnus  brought  the 
traffic  from  the  sea  up  to  the  doors  of  Tarsus,  though 
the  larger  boats  probably  unloaded  first  at  the  inland 
lake  harbour  a  few  miles  from  the  city.  Not  traders 
only  but  all  kinds  of  people  came  to  Tarsus,  lecturers  and 
students  to  the  university  of  Tarsus,^^  and  travellers  of 
many  sorts  including  royal  visitors  and  officials.  Prob- 
ably everybody  in  Tarsus  in  Paul's  boyhood  days  knew 
the  story  of  the  coming  of  Cleopatra,  "  sailing  up  the 
river  Cydnus  in  a  barge  with  a  gilded  stern  and  out- 
spread sails  of  purple,  while  oars  of  silver  beat  time  to 
the  music  of  flutes  and  fifes  and  harps,"  she  herself 
being  adorned  like  the  goddess  of  the  river. ^^  The  in- 
habitants were  so  excited  that  the}'  left  Mark  Antony, 
the  Roman  Triumvir,  sitting  alone  in  the  market-place. 
Perhaps  some  of  the  oldest  people  in  Tarsus  could  re- 
member this  gorgeous  spectacle  which  brought  about 
the  complete  degradation   of  Antony  and    finally    led 

2"  On  the  evidence  of  Acts  xxii.  3,  which  says  that  Paul  was 
"  brought  up  "  in  Jerusalem,  and  Acts  xxvi.  4,  5,  which  says  that 
Paul  was  known  there  from  his  "  youth  up,"  some  have  thought 
that  he  probably  never  went  to  school  in  Tarsus,  but  he  surely 
would  not  have  gone  to  Jerusalem  when  only  seven  years  old, 
even  though  he  did  have  a  sister  there  with  whom  he  could  live. 
Acts  xxiii.  16. 

21  Ramsay  "Cities  of  St.  Paul,"  p.   iii. 

22  Strabo,  XIV.,  v.  13. 

23  Plutarch's  Lives  :    Anthony. 


28  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

to  the  elevation  of  Augustus  who  was  Roman  Emperor 
in  Paul's  boyhood.^* 

But  if  Tarsus  was  open  to  the  world  at  the  south  and 
received  and  sent  out  travellers,  she  was  closed  to  the 
world  at  the  north,  or  at  least  she  could  say  who  might 
come  to  her,  since  there  was  only  one  exceedingly  narrow 
pass  through  the  wall  of.  the  Taurus.  These  "  Cilician 
Gates,"  with  their  inscriptions  marking  the  northern 
boundary  of  Cilicia,  must  have  been  well  known  to 
ever}'  boy  of  Tarsus,  and  the  story  of  the  ten  thousand 
Greeks  that  long  ago  had  passed  that  way.^s  In  the 
summer,  to  avoid  the  oppressive  heat  of  the  city,  the 
well-to-do  families  of  Tarsus  would  move  up  about 
half-way  to  these  Cilician  Gates.  Prof.  Wm.  M.  Ramsay, 
to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  recent  exploration  of  these 
regions,  has  found  the  ruins  of  this  suburb  of  Tarsus 
extending  ''  for  several  miles  up  to  the  deep  gorge  of 
the  river  Cydnus."  Paul's  family  would  probably  spend 
some  of  the  hot  days  up  in  the  hills. 

The  people  of  Tarsus  must  have  been  of  many  kinds. 
First  there  were  the  old  Semitic  inhabitants  whose 
tongue  was  Aramaic,  as  was  that  of  the  Jews.  Possibly 
many  of  them  still  spoke  Aramaic  in  their  homes,  just 
as  Paul's  famity  probably  did,^^  though  they  of  course 
spoke  Greek  when  dealing  with  Gentiles.  Then  there 
were  the  Greeks  who  had  come  when  Alexander  the 
Great  had  conquered  Tarsus  along  with  the  rest  of  the 
world27,.and  the  Romans  who  had  entered  under  Pompey 

2*  Augustus  was  Emperor  of  the  Roman  world  from  31  b.c. — 
14  A.D.  We  have  no  way  of  knowing  the  exact  date  of  Paul's 
birth,  but  it  must  have  been  in  tiie  early  part  of  the  first  century 
A.D.  or  in  the  last  year  or  two  of  b.c.  Specific  indications  of 
date  will  be  discussed  where  they  occur. 

25  Xenophon's  "  Anabasis,"  Bk.  I.,  21-24.  "  They  made  an 
attempt  to  enter  Cilicia  ;  but  the  sole  entrance  was  a  road  broad 
enough  only  for  a  single  carriage,  very  steep,  and  impracticable 
for  an  army  to  pass." 

28  Acts  xxii.  2  shows  that  Paul  was  familiar  v/ith  spoken 
"  Hebrew,"  that  is,  with  Aramaic. 

2"  Alexander  entered  Tarsus  334  b.c. 


EARLY   ENVIRONMENT  29 

the  Roman  general^s,  and  the  Jews  who  for  many  years 
had  been  coming  one  by  one  to  Tarsus  and  entering  into 
business.  They  had  not  entered  as  conquerors,  but  had 
secured  an  important  place  in  the  community.  There 
is  a  decree  of  Augustus'  issued  to  the  Jews  of  Asia 
which  shows  how  important  the  Romans  of  that  time 
considered  it  to  treat  the  Jews  well: 

"  Caesar  Augustus,  High  priest  and  tribune  of  the 
people,  ordains  thus  :  Since  the  nation  of  the  Jews  has 
been  found  grateful  to  the  Roman  people  ...  it 
seemed  good  to  me  and  my  counsellors,  according  to 
the  sentence  and  oath  of  the  people  of  Rome,  that  the 
Jews  should  have  liberty  to  make  use  of  their  own 
customs,  according  to  the  law  of  their  forefathers  .  .  . 
and  that  their  sacred  money  be  not  touched,  but  be  sent 
to  Jerusalem,  and  that  it  be  committed  to  the  care 
of  the  receivers  at  Jerusalem  ;  and  that  they  be  not 
obliged  to  go  before  any  judge  on  the  Sabbath-day.  .  . 
but  if  anyone  be  caught  stealing  their  holy  books,  or 
their  sacred  money,  whether  it  be  out  of  the  synagogue 
or  public  school,  he  shall  be  deemed  a  sacrilegious  person, 
and  his  goods  shall  be  brought  into  the  public  treasury 
of  the  Romans."29 

Of  course  this  reflects  also  the  fact  that  some  people 
did  despise  the  Jews  and  steal  their  holy  books,  if  they 
dared;  but  it  shows  chiefly  that  the  Jews  were  not  only 
protected  but  given  special  privileges  by  the  Romans, 
no  doubt  because  of  their  expertness  in  money  and 
trade.  Augustus  had  this  decree  put  up  at  Ancyra^o 
to  the  north  of  Tarsus,  beyond  the  Taurus  mountains. 
Because  of  these  privileges,  but  chiefly  because  of  the 
fact  that  Tarsus  was  a  Semitic  as  well  as  a  Greek  and 
Roman  city,  a  Jewish  boy  growing  up  there  would  prob- 
ably have  very  little  of  the  sense  of  being  shunned  by 
others.     He  might  even  have  the  sense  of  being  a  person 

2^  Pompey  conquered  Cilicia  in  66  B.C. 
2^  Josephus  "  Antiquities,"  XVI.,  vi.  i,  2. 
^^  Ancyra  was  the  place  where  Augustus  had  the  record  of  his 
deeds  written  upon  the  rocks. 


30  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

of  special  i)ii\'ilege,  just  as  his  teachers  in  the  synagogue 
would  tell  him.  These  general  impressions  are  what 
inflnence  life  fundamentally.  Paul,  a  boy  in  Tarsus 
in  the  early  part  of  the  first  century,  in  the  home  of  a 
Jewish  Roman  citizen,  would  feel  that  he  was  a  child  of 
God's  special  choice,  \'et  he  would  know  many  other 
kinds  of  people  and  know  that  they  considered  them- 
selves important  too.  He  could  not  help  being  interested 
in  this  motlc}'  array  of  people  who  did  business  in  the 
streets  of  Tarsus,  with  whom  his  father  probably  dealt. 
At  any  rate,  it  is  true  that  Paul's  letters  reflect  an 
interest  in  people  rather  than  in  Nature.  Perhaps 
this  was  because  the  nature  he  knew  was  completely 
at  the  service  of  people.  The  Cydnus  was  continually 
used  by  the  people,  the  harbour  was  always  full  of 
shipping,  the  hills  were  for  escape  from  the  heat.  The 
city  with  its  multiform  activities  impressed  itself  upon 
Paul.  As  has  often  been  pointed  out,  Paul  was  a  city 
man.  To  him  people  were  of  supreme  and  apparently 
exclusive  interest.  Jesus  knew  and  loved  both  nature 
and  people,  but  Paul  shows  interest  in  people  only.^i 
All  unknown  to  himself,  he  was  taking  into  his  life 
elements  that  would  make  it  possible  some  day  for  him 
to  include  all  these  various  kinds  of  people  in  his  place 
of  special  privilege  before  God.  Humanly  speaking, 
Paul  could  not  have  been  the  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles 
if  he  had  not  grown  up  in  a  Graeco-Roman  city  where 
he  could  learn  the  value  and  interest  of  all  kinds  of 
people.  He  himself  would  seem  to  have  recognised  this 
when  he  said  that  God  had  set  him  apart  even  from  the 
day  of  his  birth  that  he  "  might  preach  him  among  the 
Gentiles."32 


^^  He  expressly  states  later  that  God,  of  course,  does  not  care 
for  oxen,  but  for  men.      i  Cor.  ix.  9,  lo. 

^2  Gal.  i.  15,  16.  See  Weinel's  "  St.  Paul  :  the  Man  and  his 
Work,"  pp.  17-19,  for  excellent  collection  of  the  material  from 
Paul's  epistles  showing  his  interest  in  city  life. 


•  CHAPTER  III 

Paul's  education 

"  I  ADVANCED  ill  the  Jews'  religion  beyond  many  of 
mine  own  age  among  my  countr3'men,  being  exceedingly 
zealous  for  the  traditions  of  my  fathers." 

These  words  show  that  Paul  was  given  an  excellent 
Jewish  education,  1  and  that  he  gloried  in  his  oppor- 
tunities and  learned  his  lessons  zealously.  This  educa- 
tion, as  we  have  seen, 2  was  begun  in  the  home  and  prob- 
ably continued  in  the  school  in  Tarsus.  It  would  seem 
that  a  boy  was  expected  to  show  even  greater  respect 
for  his  teacher  than  for  his  father,  for  one  of  the  scribal 
sayings  is,  "If  a  man's  father  and  teacher  have  lost 
anything,  the  teacher's  loss  has  the  precedence  [i.e., 
he  must  first  be  assisted  in  recovering  it).  For  his 
father  only  brought  him  into  the  world.  His  teacher, 
who  taught  him  wisdom,  brings  him  into  the  life  of  the 
world  to  come.^  What  was  Paul  taught  in  the  Tarsus 
school  beside  the  '-Hear,  O  Israel  ?  "*  Josephus  an- 
swers that  it  was  considered  necessary  "  to  instruct 
children  in  the  elements  of  knowledge  (reading  and 
writing),  to  teach  them  to  walk  according  to  the  laws, 
and  to  know  the  deeds  of  their  forefathers. ' '  ^'^   Paul  would 

^  Gal.  i.  14.  Nowhere  do  we  have  an  account  of  Jewish 
education.  The  only  ancient  evidence  consists  of  (i)  a  few 
references  in  Jewish  writers,  (2)  what  is  implied  in  some  of  the 
sayings  of  the  Scribes. 

2  See  ch.  II.  pp.  25,  26. 

3  Schurer,  "  Hist,  of  the  Jews,"  Div.  II.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  317. 

*  The  Hebrew  word  for  hear  is  Shema,  and  this  declaration 
which  might  almost  be  called  the  creed  of  Judaism,  was  generally 
called  the  Shema.     See  ch.  II.,  p.  26. 

*a  Josephus    "Against  Apion,"  II.,  5. 

31 


32  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

learn  to  read  and  write  in  the  Aramaic  language,  and  he 
would  certainly  learn  to  read  Hebrew  also.  Although 
it  was  then  a  dead  language,  it  was  the  language  of  the 
Sacred  Scriptures,  and  every  boy  must  be  able  to  read 
the  Law.  It  is  possible  that  Paul  also  learned  to  read 
and  write  Greek  in  the  Tarsus  school,  for  his  quotations 
from  the  Old  Testament  seem  to  come  generally  from  the 
Greek  translation  and  all  his  known  writings  are  in 
Greek. ^  Two  or  three  languages  and  the  stories  and 
history  of  Israel,  and  the  committing  to  memory  of 
long  passages  from  the  Law  together  with  instruction 
about  putting  it  into  practice  would  constitute  a  fairly 
strong  elementary  education.  It  would  teach  self- 
control  and  the  power  to  apply  the  mind  to  a  given 
task,  as  well  as  give  useful  information. 
(/  But  Paul  also  had  manual  training,  for  he  learned  the 
trade  of  tent-making.^  This  was  a  large  and  important 
business  in  Tarsus,  indeed,  of  all  Cilicia.  A  kind  of 
cloth  called  "  cilicium  "^  was  made  from  the  long  hair  of 
the  goats  of  Cilicia.  It  was  used  for  cloaks,  curtains, 
covers,  etc.,  and  one  quality  of  it  for  tents.  Apparent^ 
many  of  the  people  of  Tarsus  worked  in  this  cloth- 
making,  for  an  orator  referred  to  the  people  of  Tarsus 
as  "  cloth-workers. "8 

Perhaps  Paul's  father  was  engaged  in  the  tent-cloth 
business.9    While  Paul  was  still  studying  in  the  "  House 

^  This  Greek  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  is  known  as  the 
Septuagint  Version,  because  there  was  a  legend  that  it  was  made 
by  seventy  Jewish  scholars  in  Egypt  about  200  B.C.  It  was 
widely  used  by  Jews  of  the  first  century,  but  there  is  as  yet  no 
evidence  to  show  whether  it  was  studied  in  the  Jewish  schools. 
The  feeling  against  Greek  culture  was  so  strong  that  it  may  have 
prevented  it.     But  at  least  Paul  learned  to  know  it  somewhere. 

^  Acts  xviii.  3  ;    i  Thess  ii.  9,  etc. 

'  Schurer,  "  Hist,  of  the  Jews,"  Div.  II.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  44. 

^  Dion  Chrysostom,  who  spoke  in  Tarsus  in  112  a.d. 

*  There  is  an  inscription  found  at  Rome  which  reads  thus  : 
"  Isaac,  elder  of  the  synagogue  of  the  Cappadocians  at  Tarsus, 
who  was  a  dealer  in  linen."  Palestine  Exploration  Fund. 
Quarterly  Statement,  No.  no,  p.  19. 


PAUL  S    EDUCATION  33 

of  the  Book  "  he  would  probably  begin  learnmg  the 
simpler  parts  of  his  trade.  After  finishing  the  work 
in  the  bo^^s'  school  and  after  perhaps  going  on  a  journey 
to  Jerusalem  and  becoming  a  full  "  Son  of  the  Law,"io 
Paul  would  perhaps  stay  in  Tarsus  and  complete  his 
knowledge  of  his  trade.  If  so,  his  education  would  not 
be  dropped,  for  he  would  go  to  the  synagogue.  Philo, 
an  Alexandrian  Jew  of  Paul's  time,  has  said,  "  Our  houses 
of  prayer  in  the  several  towns  are  none  other  than  in- 
stitutions for  teaching  prudence  and  bravery,  temperance 
and  justice,  piety  and  holiness  ;  in  short  every  virtue 
which  the  human  and  divine  recognises  and  enjoins. "i^"* 
There  were  meetings  in  the  synagogues  during  the  week 
also,  for  Josephus  sa}  s  that  people  were  permitted  to 
"  leave  ofi  their  other  employments,  and  to  assemble 
together  for  the  hearing  of  the  law,  and  learning  it 
exactly  and  this  not  once  or  twice  or  oftener,  but  ever}^ 
week.''ii 

These  synagogues  educated  people  not  only  to 
passively  listen  but  to  take  part  in  worship.  Beside 
the  well-known  parts  of  the  Law  and  prayers  which 
the  company  recited  together  the  Scriptures  might,  with 
the  consent  of  the  President  of  the  synagogue,  be  read 
by  anyone  in  the  congregation,  even  by  boys.^^  At  least 
seven  different  people  read  from  the  Scriptures  on  a 
Sabbath.  The  reader  of  the  Prophets  perhaps  selected 
his  own  passage.  1^  The  preacher  of  the  day  might  be 
any  competent  person  of  the  congregation. i*  A  service 
of  this  kind  must  have  been  an  inspiration  to  a  young 
man  since  it  offered  him  opportunity  to  think  of 
taking  more  and  more  part  in  the  sacred  service. 

But  such  inspiration  received  at  Tarsus  would  suggest 

/*"  Luke  ii.  41,  42. 

1"'  Schiirer,  "  Hist,  of  the  Jews,"  Div.  II.,  Vol.  2,  p.  54. 

^  Josephus,  "  Against  Apion,"  II.,  18.  This  must  refer  to 
midweek  meetings,  since  on  the  Sabbath  there  v/ould  be  no 
"  other  employments  "  to  leave. 

^2  Schiirer,  "  Hist,  of  the  Jews,"  Div.  II.,  Vol.  2,  pp.  79,  80. 

^^  Luke  iv.  17. 

"  Schurer,  "  Hist,  of  the  Jews,"  Div.  II.,  Vol.  2,  p.  82. 


34  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

Jerusalem  to  any  specially  earnest  and  thoughtful 
young  man,  for  there  was  the  Holy  Temple  and  there 
were  the  great  teachers  of  the  Law.  Just  as  a  Greek  boy 
of  Tarsus  might  long  to  go  to  Athens  because  it  was  the 
ancient  centre  of  Greek  learning,  so  a  Jewish  boy  of 
Tarsus  might  make  it  his  ambition  to  finish  his  studies 
in  Jerusalem.  But  the  Jewish  boy  would  go  at  an 
earlieragebecausehe  would  not  wish  first  to  study  in  the 
Greek  University  of  Tarsus.  If  Paul  became  a  "Son  of 
the  Law  "  when  he  was  fourteen  years  old,  he  could  easily 
have  completed  the  learning  of  his  trade  and  been 
ready  to  go  to  Jerusalem  by  the  time  he  was  sixteen. 
Luke  reports  Paul  as  saying  that  he  went  from  Tarsus 
to  Jerusalem  while  still  young  to  be  "  instructed 
according  to  the  strict  manner  of  the  Law."^^ 

There  was  excellent  communication  between  Tarsus 
and  Jerusalem  by  land  or  by  sea.  The  Jerusalem  to 
which  the  young  man  Paul  went  as  a  student,  was 
the  city  as  it  had  been  rebuilt  and  beautified  by  Herod 
the  Great.  On  the  hill  to  the  west  of  the  temple  area 
Paul  must  have  seen  the  magnificent  palace  of  Herod, i^"' 
the  gardens  of  vdiich  were  kept  green  by  water  brought 
from  a  spring  not  far  from  Bethlehem.  He  must  have 
seen  Herod's  theatres  and  his  gymnasium  in  the  Tyro- 
poean  Valley.  But  his  interest  would  centre  in  the 
magnificent  temple  built  by  Herod  on  the  sacred  mount. 
Its  white  stone  and  geld  were  said  to  make  it  look  like 
a  mountain  of  snow.  Its  courts  and  cloisters  were  filled 
with  worshippers,  teachers  and  students. 

Apparently  each  student  when  he  reached  Jerusalem 
chose  for  himself  a  teacher,  for  Rabban  Gamaliel  said  : 
"  A.ppoint  for  thyself  a  teacher,  so  wilt  thou  avoid 
what  is  doubtful. "1^     It  is  interesting  that  this  was  said 

1^  Acts  xxii.  3  and  xxvi.  4.  Paul's  letters  say  nothing  about 
his  going  to  Jerusalem  to  study,  but  they  imply  that  he  knew 
Jerusalem.     Neither  do  they  mention  Gamaliel. 

15a  Part  of  this  palace  is  still  standing  and  is  popularly  known 
as  the  Tower  of  David.  It  is  probably  the  building  in  w-hich 
Pontius  Pilate  lived  and  Jesus  was  tried. 

i«  Taylor's  "  Sajangs  of  the  Jewish  Fathers,"  I.  17. 


Paul's  education  35 

by  the  very  teacher  whom  Paul  chose.  Having  chosen 
a  teacher,  no  doubt  he  took  the  attitude  toward  him 
which  the  scribes  expected  of  their  pupils  which  one  of 
them  has  expressed  thus  :  "  Powder  thyself  in  the  dust 
at  their  feet  and  drink  in  their  words  with  thirstiness.''^^ 
Here,  then,  is  Paul  in  the  midst  of  the  Jerusalem  centre 
of  learning.  He  finds  the  same  worship  of  the  written 
Law  with  which  he  has  become  familiar  at  home,  but 
he  now  hears  the  scribes  discussing  the  subject,  declaring 
perhaps  that,  "  He  who  asserts  that  the  Torah  is  not 
from  heaven,  has  no  part  in  the  future  world  "  or  "  He 
who  says  that  Moses  wrote  even  one  verse  of  his  own 
knowledge  is  a  denier  and  despiser  of  the  ^^'ord  of 
God."i^  The  most  strict  advocates  of  the  Law  were  the 
Pharisees, 19  and  Paul's  teacher  was  undoubtedly  a 
Pharisee  for  it  was  later  said  of  him,  "  Since  Rabban 
Gamaliel  the  elder  died  there  has  been  no  more  rever- 
ence for  the  Law,  and  purity  and  abstinence  have 
died. "20  Paul  certainly  threw  himself  heart  and  soul 
into  the  Pharisaic  legal  teaching,  for  he  describes  this 
period  of  his  life  with  the  words,  "  As  touching  the 
law,  a  Pharisee. "21 

In  Jerusalem,  Paul  would  also  learn  much  more  about 
the  "  Oral  Law  "  than  in  Tarsus.  The  Oral  Law  con- 
sisted of  the  explanations  of  the  Written  Law  given  by 
different  scribes  called  also  rabbis  or  teachers. 22  There 
were,  in  Paul's  day,  two  schools  of  interpretation  which 

1'  Taylor's  "  Sayings  of  the  Jewish  Fathers,"  I.  4. 

^^  Schiirer,  "History  of  the  Jews,"  Div.  II.,  Vol.  i,  p.  307. 
They  declared  that  Tyloses  wrote  even  the  last  verses  of  Deut. 
about  his  own  death.     Torah  is  the  Hebrew  word  for  Law. 

^*  The  name  Pharisee  means  Separatist,  and  probably  \\as 
applied  to  those  who  separated  themselves  from  those  who  were 
not  strict  in  the  keeping  of  the  Lavv^. 

2"  The  word  here  translated  abstinence  comes  from  the  same 
root  as  the  name  Pharisee.  It  might  perhaps  be  translated 
separateness  or  Phariseeism. 

21  Phil.  iii.  5. 

22  The  Scribes  were  originally  those  who  wrote  and  copied  the 
Law,  but  in  the  time  of  Paul  they  are  the  teachers  of  the 
Law . 


36  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

received  their  names  from  two  great  Scribes  who  had 
lived  a  short  time  before — Hillel  and  Shammai.  Hillel 
had  been  gentle  and  reasonable  in  hisai)plicationsof  the 
Law,  and  Shammai  harsh  and  literal.  A  stranger  once 
"  came  to  Shammai  to  be  converted  })rovidcd  that  he 
conld  be  taught  the  whole  Torah  while  he  stood  on  one 
foot.  Shammai  beat  him  away,  and  he  went  to  Hillel,  who 
said,  '  What  is  hateful  to  thyself  do  not  to  thy  fellow  ; 
this  is  the  whole  Torah,  and  the  rest  is  commentary  ; 
go,  study.'  "2^  This  man  afterwards  met  two  others 
who  had  returned  with  somewhat  the  same  experience 
and  they  agreed  in  saying,  "  The  irritability  of  Shammai 
sought  to  drive  us  from  the  world  ;  the  gentleness  of 
Hillel  brought  us  nigh  under  the  wings  of  the 
Shekinah."2-i 

Paul's  teacher,  Gamaliel,  was  said  to  be  the  grandson 
of  Hillel,  and  was  in  Paul's  time  the  head  of  the  Hillel 
School. 25  It  is  certain,  then,  that  Paul  would  be  ex- 
pected to  learn  thoroughly  the  sayings  of  Hillel.  Pupils, 
called  disciples,  memorised,  by  repeating,  the  sayings 
of  the  scribes.  The  whole  body  of  Oral  Law  was  thus 
passed  on  from  one  generation  to  another  by  memory 
only.  The  Aramaic  word  meaning  to  teach  means  also 
to  repeat.  Paul  must  have  many  times  heard  Gamaliel 
repeat  the  sayings  of  Hillel.  Here  are  a  few  that  have 
been  handed  down  to  us  from  that  ancient  college  of 
the  Rabbis. 

"  Hillel  said,  Be  of  the  disciples  of  Aaron  ;  loving 
peace,  and  pursuing  peace  ;  loving  mankind,  and  bring- 
ing them  nigh  unto  the  Torah. "^^ 

"  Hillel  said.  Separate  not  thyself  from  the  congre- 
gation, and  trust  not  in  thyself  until  the  day  of  thy 
death,  and  judge  not  thy  friend  until  thou  comest  into 

23  Taylor's  "  Sayings  of  the  Jewish  Fathers,"  p.  23,  note  ^s. 
Compare  Matt.  vii.  12. 

2*  The  Shekinah  was  the  light  under  the  wings  of  the  cherubim 
in  the  Holy  of  Holies  in  the  Temple. 

25  In  three  things  only  he  decided  according  to  Shammai. 
Schiirer,  "Hist,  of  Jews,"  Div.  II.  Vol.  I.,  p.  370. 

26  Taylor's  "  Sayings  of  the  Jewish  Fathers,"  I.  13. 


PAUL  S    EDUCATION  37 

his  place  ;  and  say  not,  when  I  have  leisure  I  will  study  ; 
perchance  thou  mayest  not  have  leisure.  "27 

Apparently  students  were  expected  to  work  seriously. 
A  Rabbi  who  lived  a  little  later  said, ' '  He  who  is  walking 
by  the  way  and  studying,  and  breaks  off  his  study  and 
says, '  How  fine  is  this  tree  !  How  fine  is  that  tree  !  and 
how  fine  is  that  fallow  !  '  They  account  it  to  him  as 
if  he  were  guilty  of  death. "^s  It  was  thought  that 
nothing  ought  to  turn  one's  mind  away  from  study  and 
nothing  keep  him  from  undertaking  study.  Hillel  had 
been  so  poor  that  after  him  if  one  excused  himself  from 
Torah  study  on  the  ground  of  povert}'  it  was  replied 
"  Wast  thou  poorer  than  Hillel  ?  "29 

Why  did  not  Jewish  education  produce  more  great 
men  if  it  succeeded  in  making  its  students  work  and  if 
they  learned  sayings  so  worth  while  as  these  of  Hillel's  ? 
First,  because  only  a  few  of  the  sayings  were  equal 
to  these  ;  second,  because  in  their  discussions  not 
fundamental  principles  but  minor  details  of  practice 
were  considered.  Imagine  a  Rabbi^^  with  his  pupils 
about  him,  perhaps  in  some  part  of  the  court  of  the 
temple,  repeating  the  above  words  of  Hillel.  This 
might  open  a  discussion  on  what  it  meant  to  be  brought 
"  nigh  unto  the  Torah,"  but  this  would  not  be  a  con- 
sideration of  how  one  could  keep  the  true  spirit  of  the 
Law,  but  rather  how  one  could  keep  certain  rules  for 
keeping  the  law.  Thus  the  Vv  hole  of  a  student's  morning 
might  be  wasted  in  hearing  a  discussion  about  whether 

"  Taylor's  "  Sayings  of  the  Jewish  Fathers,"  II.  5. 

^^  Taylor's  "  Sayings  of  the  Jewish  Fathers,"  III.  11. 

2^  Taylor's  "  Sayings  of  the  Jewish  Fathers,"  p.  20. 

^°  The  word  Rabbi  really  means  my  teacher,  but  had  come  to 
be  used  as  a  noun.  There  seems  to  have  been  much  discussion 
about  whether  teachers  and  pupils  should  sit  or  stand.  The 
argument  of  one  was  as  follows  :  Whence  is  it  that  a  Rab  must 
not  sit  on  a  cushion  and  teach  his  disciples  on  the  floor  ?  but 
both  he  and  they  must  sit  on  the  couch,  or  both  stand  ?  It  is 
because  it  is  said  (Deut.  v.  ^y)  :  "  Stand  thou  here  with  me.'' 
But  there  is  a  tradition  that  Gamaliel  first  allowed  the  pupils 
to  sit  and  the  teacher  to  take  an  elevated  seat. — Taylor's  "  Sayings 
of  the  Jewish  Fathers,"  p.  14. 


38  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

on  a  holy  day  a  ladder  might  be  carried  from  one  pigeon- 
house  to  another,  or  might  only  be  slanted  from  one 
hole  to  another. ^1  Third,  even  in  the  discussions  on 
useless  subjects  pupils  were  not  expected  to  think  for 
themselves.  Some  kind  of  a  reference  to  a  Scripture 
text  or  a  saying  of  a  Scribe  was  expected  to  settle  every- 
thing. The  Scribes  worshipped  authorit3^  Even 
Hillel  who  was  great  because  his  own  personality  some- 
times broke  through  the  crust  of  traditionalism,  had  not 
been  recognized  as  a  teacher  until  he  admitted  that 
"  Torah  without  traditional  authorit}^  is  not  Torah." 
He  set  forth  all  the  reasons  on  every  side  of  the  question 
under  discussion,  but  it  was  of  no  avail  until  at  length 
he  said,  "It  occurs  to  me  that  thus  I  heard  from 
Shema'iah.''  Then  the}-  arose  up  and  appointed  him 
teacher.^-  The  ideal  pupil  was  one  who  vvas  "  like  a  well 
lined  with  lime,  which  loses  not  a  drop."^^  Not  only  in 
their  teaching  but  in  the  whole  surroundings  of  the 
life  they  were  hemmed  in  by  rules.  Josephus  boasts 
that  Moses  had  arranged  every  detail  of  one's  life  : 
"  Beginning  immediately  from  the  earliest  infancy,  and 
the  appointment  of  everyone's  diet,  he  left  nothing  of 
the  very  smallest  consequence  to  be  done  at  the  pleasure 
and  disposal  of  the  individual  himself.'"^^  The  wonder 
is  that  any  great  leaders  at  all  grew  up  among  the  Jews. 
How  often  Paul  must  have  "  kicked  against  the  goads  !  "^^ 
A  strong  vital  spirit  such  as  his  letters  show  him  to  be 
must  have  found  it  exceedingly  difficult  to  conform 
continually  to  hard  and  fast  rules. 

But  there  was  one  subject  of  deep  interest  to  all  the 
students  in  Jerusalem  that  did  allow  the  mind  free  play — 

^^  Schiirer,  "  Hist,  of  Jews,"  Div.  II.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  362. 

'^  Taylor's  "  Sayings  of  the  Jewish  Fathers,"  p.  20,  note  26. 
This  seems  to  have  been  a  kind  of  examination  to  see  whether 
Hillel  might  be  a  teacher. 

^^  Taylor's  "  Sayings  of  the  Jewish  Fathers,"  II.  8  ;  Schiirer, 
"  Hist,  of  Jews,"  biv.  II.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  325. 

^*  Josephus  "  Against  Apion,"  II.  18. 

^*  Acts  xxvi.  14. 


Paul's  education  39 

the  coming  of  the  Messiah.  The  Prophets  had,  indeed, 
told  of  the  Messiah,  but  since  the  reaUzation  lay  in  the 
future,  the  mind  refused  to  be  content  with  the  words 
of  the  past  about  the  Messiah,  and  a  whole  literature 
grew  up  around  this  living  hope.  That  the  Scribes 
discussed  the  subject  is  shown  by  Jesus'  question, 
"  How  say  the  scribes  that  the  Messiah  is  the  Son  of 
David  ?  "^"^  But  this  was  the  subject  that  the  students 
would  be  apt  to  discuss  freely  by  themselves.  They 
would  read  the  recent  Messianic  books  and  talk  them 
over  and  perhaps  even  write  concerning  the  Messiah, 
for  upon  this  one  subject  books  were  being  written 
at  that  time.  The  Messianic  hope  must  have  taken 
somewhat  the  same  place  in  the  minds  of  young  students 
of  that  day  that  social  reconstruction  takes  to-day. 
Young  men  like  Paul  full  of  eager,  patriotic  interest 
must  have  read  and  dreamed  about  this  new  age. 
Happily  we  know  some  of  the  books  over  which  they 
probably  pored.  There  was  the  book  of  Daniel  with 
its  reference  to  the  Kingdom  of  the  Saints  and  the 
"  Son  of  Man, "37  and  the  "  Book  of  Enoch  "38  with  its 
descriptions  of  all  the  events  connected  with  the  coming 
of  the  Messiah.  Here  are  a  few  passages  from  Enoch 
which  Paul  probably  read  with  the  keenest  interest. 

Ch.  xlv.  3-6,  "  On  that  day  Mine  Elect  One  will  sit 
on  the  throne  of  glory  and  make  choice  amongst  their 
(men's)  deeds,  and  their  mansions  will  be  innumerable, 
and  their  souls  will  grow  strong  within  them  when  they 
see  Mine  elect  ones  and  those  who  have  called  upon  M}' 

2^  Mk.  xii.  35. 

^'  Dan.  vii.   13-27. 

^^  The  "  Book  of  Enoch  "  is  made  up  of  a  whole  series  of  books 
by  different  authors  who  speculate  about  the  events  of  the 
future  age.  They  centred  their  work  around  the  name  Enoch 
because  it  is  said,  in  Gen.  v.  24,  that  Enoch  walked  with  God. 
He  coald,  therefore,  be  supposed  to  have  learned  from  God 
about  the  future.  Part  of  the  book  dates  from  about  the  time 
of  Daniel,  b.c.  170  ;  other  parts  were  added  at  different  times 
\  until  after  the  time  of  Paul,  which  shows  that  the  book  stirred 
'  up  thought.     See  Charles,   "  The  Book  of  Enoch." 


40  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

glorious  name.  And  on  that  day  I  will  cause  Mine  Elect 
One  to  dwell  among  them,  and  I  will  transform  the 
heaven  and  make  it  an  eternal  blessing  and  light.  And 
I  will  transform  the  earth  and  make  it  a  blessing  and 
cause  Mine  elect  ones  to  dwell  upon  it :  but  the  sinners 
and  evil-doers  will  not  set  foot  thereon.  For  I  have 
seen  and  satisfied  with  peace  My  righteous  ones,  and 
have  caused  them  to  dwell  before  Me  :  but  for  the  sinners 
there  is  judgment  impending  with  Me  so  that  I  may 
destroy  them  from  the  face  of  the  earth." 

Ch.  xlvi.  1-5,  "  And  there  I  saw  One  who  had  a  head 
of  days,  and  His  head  was  white  like  wool,  and  with 
Him  was  another  being  whose  countenance  had  the 
appearance  of  a  man  and  his  face  was  lull  of  graciousness, 
like  one  of  the  holy  angels.  And  I  asked  the  angel  who 
went  with  me  and  showed  me  all  the  hidden  things, 
conGerning  that  Son  of  Man,  who  he  was,  and  whence 
he  was,  and  why  he  went  with  the  Head  of  Days  ?  And 
he  answered  and  said  unto  m^e,  '  This  is  the  Son  of  Man 
who  hath  righteousness,  with  whom  dwelleth  righteous- 
ness, and  who  reveals  all  the  treasures  of  that  which  is 
hidden,  because  the  Lord  of  Spirits  had  chosen  him,  and 
his  lot  before  the  Lord  of  spirits  hath  surpassed  every- 
thing in  uprightness  forever.  And  this  Son  of  Man 
whom  thou  hast  seen  will  arouse  the  Kings  and  the 
mighty  ones  from  their  couches.  .  .  .  And  he  will 
put  down  the  Kings  from  their  thrones.' 

Ch.  lii.  4,  "  And  he  said  unto  me,  '  All  these  things 
which  thou  hast  seen  serve  the  dominion  of  His  Anointed 
[Messiah]  that  he  may  be  potent  and  mighty  on  the 
earth.'  " 

Ch.  Ixix.  26-29,  "  The  name  of  the  Son  of  Man  was 
revealed  unto  them  :  And  he  sat  on  the  throne  of  his 
glory,  and  the  sum  of  judgment  was  committed  unto  him. 
the  Son  of  Man,  and  he  caused  the  sinners  and  those  who 
have  led  the  world  astray  to  pass  away  and  be  destroyed 
from  off  the  face  of  the  earth.  With  chains  shall  they 
be  bound,  and  in  their  assemblage-place  of  destruction 
shall  they  be  imprisoned,  and  all  their  works  vanish  from 


Paul's  education  41 

the  face  of  the  earth.  And  from  that  time  on  there  will 
be  nothing  corruptible  ;  for  the  Son  of  Man  has  appeared 
and  sits  on  the  throne  of  his  glory,  and  all  evil  will  pass 
away  before  his  face  and  depart  ;  but  the  word  of  the 
Son  of  Man  will  be  strong  before  the  Lord  of  Spirits." 

This  shows  that  there  was  not  only  hope  of  a  new  age 
but  also  of  a  great  personality  whom  God  would  send 
to  introduce  this  new  age.  The  same  hope  is  expressed 
in  some  of  the  Psalms  of  the  Pharisees  written  nearly  a 
century  before  Paul's  time.  One  of  them  contains  the 
following  passage  : 

"  Behold,  Oh  Lord,  and  raise  up  unto  them  their   King 

the  Son  of  David, 
He  shall  glorify  the  Lord  in  a  place  to  be  seen  of  the 

whole  earth. 
And  he  shall  purge  Jerusalem  and  make  it  hoi}',  even 

as  it  was  in  the  da^'S  of  old, 
A  righteous  king  and  taught  of  God  is  he  that  reigneth 

over  them  ; 
And  there  shall  be  no  iniquity  in  his  days  in  their 

midst  for  all  shall  be  holy  and  their  King  is  the 

Lord  Messiah."39 

These,  then,  are  some  of  the  elements  that  entered 
into  the  education  and  therefore  moulded  the  life  of 
Paul  in  his  formative  3^ears.  Although  he  had  been 
"  exceedingly  zealous  "  in  his  work  and  had  "  advanced 
.  .  ■  .  beyond  many,"*^  the  real  test  of  efficiency  only 
life  can  give.  How  far  will  Paul  prove  to  be  fitted  to 
act  wisely  in  the  new  situations  of  which  his  teachers 
could  know  nothing  ?  How  keenly  has  his  mind  been 
trained  to  discern  the  truth  if  it  should  appear  in 
unexpected  place  and  form  ? 


3^  Ryle  and  James'  "  Psalms  of  Solomon,"  Ode  17,  23,  32-36- 
See  especially  Ode  18. 
*o  Gal.  i.  14. 


CHAPTER  IV 

ATTITUDE    TOWARD    A   NEW    MOVEMENT 

Not  many  }  ears  after  Paul  was  a  student  in  Jerusalem, 
there  appeared  in  Capernaum  of  Galilee  a  3'oung  preacher 
known  as  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  proclaiming  the  good  news 
of  God  in  the  words, 

"  The  Kingdom  of  God  is  at  hand."^ 

Travellers  reported  in  Jerusalem  that  he  had  gathered 
a  group  of  disciples,  and  that  the  people  everyw^here 
flocked  to  him  for  teaching  and  healing.  But  he  was 
not  expounding  the  Law  to  these  people,  indeed  he  had 
actually  allowed  his  disciples  to  "  pluck  the  ears  of 
corn,"  contrary  to  the  law  as  they  went  through  a  grain 
field  on  a  Sabbath  day.  He  had  even  defended  them  by 
declaring  that  David  had  broken  the  Law  when  he  was 
hungry,  and  that, 

"  The  Sabbath  was  made  for  man  and  not  man  for 
the  Sabbath."2 

As  the  months  went  by  his  power  over  the  people 
seemed  to  increase  and  they  declared  him  to  be  a 
great  prophet,  perhaps  even  Elijah  who  was  to 
prepare  the  way  for  the  Messiah.  The  Galilean 
Pharisees  were  alarmed  and  even  Herod,  the  King.^ 
At  length,  certain  scribes  went  from  Jerusalem  and 
found  that  it  was  indeed  true  that  Jesus  violated 
the  Law,  for  they  saw  that  some  of  his  disciples  ate  with 
hands  not  washed  according  to  the  rules  of  the  scribes. 
When  they  criticized  him  he  dared  to  call  them  "  Hype- 


ix.    II  ;    iii.  6. 
42 


Mk. 

i.   15. 

Mk. 

ii.  23-28. 

Mk. 

vi.    14-16 

ATTITUDE    TOWARD    A    NEW   MOVEMENT  43 

crites  "  declaring  that  they  made  "  void  the  word  of 
God  "  by  their  traditions.*  This  made  them  determine 
that  his  work  must  be  stopped,  and  they  told  the  people 
that  his  power  was  in  reality  the  power  of  Beelzebub,^ 
and  they  ought  not  to  listen  to  him.  They  urged  the 
Pharisees  to  tell  Herod  that  Jesus  must  be  arrested  at 
once  and  they  succeeded  in  driving  him  out  of  Galilee.^ 
Some  months  later  when  it  might  be  supposed  that  he 
had  given  up  his  work,  Jesus  suddenly  appeared  on  the 
borders  of  Judea.^  On  the  first  day  of  the  week  of  the 
Passover  feast  he  entered  Jerusalem  amid  a  throng 
of  disciples  who  cried, 

"  Hosanna  ;  blessed  is  he  that  cometh  in  the  name 
of  the  Lord.  Blessed  is  the  King'dom  that  cometh, 
the  Kingdom  of  our  father  David  ;  Hosanna  in  the 
highest.''^ 

The  next  day  he  drove  out  the  traders  and  took 
possession  of  the  temple  court  and  taught  the  people 
there.  With  what  consternation  the  Jerusalem  scribes 
who  had  stopped  his  work  in  Galilee  must  have  viewed 
him  if  they  were  present  !  All  the  following  day  he 
held  his  place  in  the  temple,  refusing  to  tell  by  what 
authority  he  acted  and  giving  astonishingly  clever 
answers  to  every  test  question  put  to  him.  He  spoke  a 
parable  to  the  temple  authorities,  in  which  he  indicated 
that  he  was  "a  beloved  son"  of  God  and  they  were 
wicked  husbandmen.  Finally  one  of  his  own  disciples 
delivered  him  into  the  hands  of  the  Sanhedrin  where 
he  condemned  himself  by  the  blasphemous  assertion 
that  he  was  the  Messiah,  and  was  accordingly  put  to 
death  at  once.^ 

4  Mk.  vii.    1-3. 

5  Mk.  iii.   22. 

6  This  statement  is  based  on  the  fact  that  just  after  this  visit 
in  Mk.  vii.  of  the  Jerusalem  scribes,  Jesus'  work  in  Galilee  comes 
to  an  end  and  He  seems  to  live  in  exile.    See  also  Lk.  xiii.  31-33. 

'  Mk.  X.   I. 

^  Mk.  xi.   i-io. 

^  Mk.  xi.   15  ;    xiv.  62,   (ic. 


44  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

In  some  such  unsympathetic  way,  perhaps,  the  story 
of  Jesus  would  be  told  among  scribal  circles  in  Jerusalem. 
Was  Paul  there  ?  Did  he  hear  any  of  this  story  ?  He  may 
have  gone  back  to  Tarsus  or  he  may  have  settled  in  Jeru- 
salem, i*^  And  his  letters  contain  nothing  which  proves 
that  Paul  ever  saw  Jesus. ii  But  he  might  easily  have 
been  in  Jerusalem  and  not  have  seen  Jesus,  for  the 
accounts  which  he  would  be  apt  to  receive  of  Jesus' 
work  in  Galilee  would  not  be  attractive  enough  to  draw 
him  there,  and  Jesus  taught  only  two  or  three  days  in 
Jerusalem,  and  his  death  was  accomplished  secretly 
and  quickly. 12  He  would  certainly  have  been  greatly 
interested  if  he  had  heard  that  Jesus  claimed  to  be  the 
Messiah,  but  he  tould  not  have  received  that  report, 
for  no  one  knew  it  except  Jesus  and  his  closest  friends, 
until  those  last  few  days  before  his  death. 

Paul  ma3%  then,  have  been  within  easy  reach  of  the 
Great  Teacher,  and  may  have  missed  the  opportunity 
of  hearing  him  because  he  was  so  wrapped  up  in 
the  teachings  of  the  scribes.  His  education  had 
not  taught  him  to  look  for  truth  in  unexpected 
places  or  forms.  It  would  be  sufficient  to  keep 
Paul  away  from  Jesus  to  be  told  by  a  Jerusalem 
scribe  who  had  visited  Galilee  that  Jesus  was  not 
"  zealous  for  the  traditions  "  of  his  fathers. ^^  Paul's 
whole  interest  must,  in  those  days,  have  centred  in  two 
subjects — the  law  representing  God's  revelation  in  the 
past,  and  the  Messiah  representing  God's  promise  for 
the    future  ;     neither  of  these  would  lead  him  to   go 

'"  He  might  have  gone  into  business  in  Jerusalem  as  an  agent 
for  the  tent  cloth  business  of  Tarsus,  perhaps  an  agent  for  his 
father. 

"  For  an  argument  to  the  effect  that  2  Corinthians  v.  16  proves 
that  Paul  saw  Jesus  in  the  flesh,  see  J.  Weiss'  "  Paul  and  Jesus," 
P-  39ff- 

'-  The  crowd  that  cried  "  crucify  him  "  was  the  rabble  collected 
from  the  street  early  in  the  morning. 

'^  Gal.  i.   14. 


ATTITUDE    TOWARD    A   NEW   MOVEMENT  45 

and  hear   Jesus,  the  carpenter,  even   though   he  was 
proclaiming  that  the  Kingdom  was  at  hand. 

After  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus  there  was  every  reason  to 
suppose  that  the  whole  movement  which  centred  in  him 
would  come  to  an  end.  It  seemed  impossible  that  any 
true  Jew  should  continue  to  think  that  this  Jesus  could 
possibly  be  the  Messiah  when  God  had  permitted  this 
terrible  death  to  come  upon  him,  for  the  Book  of 
Deuteronomy  expressly  said  : 

"  He  that  is  hanged  is  accursed  of  God."i* 

That  the  accursed  of  God  should  be  the  anointed  of 
God  was  unthinkable  and  blasphemous.  And  yet  word 
comes  to  Paul  that  the  followers  of  the  Nazarene  actually 
claim  that  the  crucified  Jesus  is  indeed  the  Anointed 
One  of  God.  Furthermore,  they  support  their  belief 
with  the  most  astounding  statements.  Jesus,  the 
crucified,  they  declare,  is  not  dead.^^  He  still  lives, 
and  he  has  appeared  to  various  of  his  disciples. 
He  will  come  again  soon,  and  bring  in  the  Messianic 
Age.  How  utterly  subversive  of  all  God's  plans  for 
Israel  ! 

In  some  such  way  Paul  may  have  thought  of  the 
disciples  'of  Jesus.  And  was  not  the  duty  of  destroying 
this  heresy  plain  before  him  ?  Did  not  the  Law^^  say 
that  even  if  "  thy  brother,"  or  "  thy  son,"  or  "  the  wife 
of  thy  bosom,  or  thj^  friend,  which  is  as  thine  own  soul  " 
should  entice  thee  away  from  the  true  religion  "  thou 
shalt  not  consent  unto  him,  nor  hearken  unto  him  ; 
neither  shall  thine  eye  pity  him,  neither  shalt  thou 
spare,  neither  shalt  thou  conceal  him  ;  but  thou  shalt 
surely  kill  him  ;  thine  hand  shall  be  first  upon  him 
to  put  him  to  death  "  ?     How  Paul  rose  in  his  might 

^^  Deut.  xxi.  23  ;    Gal.  iii.  13. 

1^  It  is  doubtful  whether  Paul  knew  of  any  of  the  bodily 
appearances  of  Jesus  told  in  Luke  and  John.  See  ch.  vii. 
pp.  62-64  for  further  discussion. 

^''  Deut.  xiii.  6-1 1. 


46  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

to  carry  out  this  command  of  the  Law  is  shown  by  his 
later  words  : 

"  How  that  beyond  measure  I  persecuted  the  church 
of  God,  and  made  havoc  of  it.''^^ 

One  of  those  who  believed  Jesus  to  be  the  Messiah 
was  Stephen,  a  man  who  was  "  full  of  grace  and  power. "^^ 
Now  there  was  in  Jerusalem  a  synagogue  made  up  of 
people  from  distant  places  such  as  Alexandria  and  Cilicia 
and  the  members  of  this  synagogue  began  "  disputing 
with  Stephen,"  and  finally  they  brought  about  his  death. 19 

Was  Paul  one  "  of  them  of  Cilicia  "  who  debated  with 
him  ?  Was  he,  possibl}^  one  of  the  officials  of  the 
synagogue  who  helped  to  bring  about  the  death  of 
Stephen  ?  At  least  Paul  was  present  at  his  death,  and 
"  was  consenting  "  thereto^o  and  immediately  after  he 
"  laid  waste  the  church,  entering  into  every  house,  and 
haling  men  and  women  committed  them  to  prison. "21 
Afterwards  he  procured  letters  from  the  high  priest  and 
"  breathing  threatening  and  slaughter  "  set  out  to  bring 
back  bound  to  Jerusalem  any  that  he  found  who  were  "  of 
the  Way  "22  j^  the  city  of  Damascus  far  to  the  north. ^3 

But  could  Paul  have  felt  no  qualms  in  carr34ng  out  this 
terrible  work  ?  His  letters  show  that  he  was  by  nature 
most  tender  and  loving.  Must  it  not  have  torn  his 
heart  to  destroy  these  earnest  people,  especially  as  they 
could  not  have  acted  like  the  wicked  blasphemers  he 
supposed  them  ?  Must  he  not  have  been  impressed 
by  their  love  for  the  crucified  Jesus  and  their  fellowship 
with  each  other  ?     Did  he,  perchance,  hear  some  of  the 

•''  Gal.  i.  13  ;    see  also  i  Cor.  xv.  9  ;    Phil.  iii.  5,  6. 

1^  Acts  vi.   8. 

19  Acts  vi.  9. 

-"  Acts  vii.   58  ;     viii.   i. 

-'   Acts  viii.   3. 

--  Acts  ix.  1-3  ;    xxii.  4,  5  ;    xxvi.  10,  11. 

-•*  One  wonders  why  he  should  choose  Damascus  when  there 
were  certainly  disciples  in  cities  much  nearer.  Was  he  going 
to  Damascus  for  something  connected  with  the  tent-cloth 
business  ? 


ATTITUDE    TOWARD    A    NEW    MOVEMENT  47 

words  of  Jesus  quoted  by  his  disciples,  and  realize  that 
they  were  not  like  words  of  one  accursed  of  God  ? 
Did  he  see  that  these  disciples  were  not  afraid  to  die, 
because  they  seemed  to  think  they  were  going  into 
the  presence  of  Jesus  P^*  Indeed,  Stephen  had  said  that 
he  saw  "  the  Son  of  man  standing  on  the  right  hand  of 
God. "25  Did  they,  then,  actually  think  Jesus  the 
crucified  to  be  that  marvellous  Son  of  Man,  of  whom 
Daniel  and  Enoch  had  written  ?  How  terrible  if  one 
should  find  one's  self  persecuting  God's  Messiah  !  But 
no,  it  could  not  be,  for  that  would  mean  that  God  had 
broken  His  own  Law,  and  made  it  void  and  that  one 
might  as  well  be  a  Gentile  as  a  Jew.  Impossible  ! 
Yet  what  about  this  Law  ;  did  it  really  produce  right- 
eousness ?  The  Law  says,  "Thou  shalt  not  covet," 
but  how  does  it  help  one  to  keep  the  mind  from  longing 
for  unlawful  things  ?  Indeed,  it  sometimes  causes 
covetousness  by  suggesting  it.-<^  The  Law  makes  its 
demands  clear  to  the  mind,  but  it  furnishes  no  power 
for  keeping  those  demands.  The  heart  remains  covetous. 
Thus  one  is  compelled  to  face  the  terrible  fact  : 

"  Not  what  I  would,  that  do  I  practise  ;  but  what  I 
hate  that  I  do.  .  .  To  will  is  present  with  me,  but 
to  do  that  which  is  good  is  not.  For  the  good  which  I 
would  I  do  not  ;  but  the  evil  which  I  would  not,  that  I 
practise. "27 

These  words  of  Paul's,  written  years  after,  are  certainly 
a  remembrance  of  the  days  when  he  was  struggling^s 

-*  Acts  vii.   59. 

-•^  Acts  vii.   56. 

"•^  Rom.  vii.  7-1 1. 

^  Rom.  vii.   15,   19. 

-^  Acts  xxvi.  14  :  "  It  is  hard  for  thee  to  kick  against  the 
goads,"  also  shows  Luke's  knowledge  of  this  struggle  of  Paul's. 
These  words  are  from  Greek  literature.  They  are  found  in 
Aeschylus  (Agam.  1624)  and  Pindar  (Pyth  II.,  173).  But  why 
does  Luke  put  them  into  one  of  his  accounts  of  Paul's  conversion 
unless  he  believed  that  this  experience  was  the  culmination  of 
a   struggle  ? 


48  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

to  keep  the  law  absolutely,  and  they  show  that  he  knew 
that  he  was  continuously  failing.  It  was  not,  as  the 
words  might  seem  at  first  to  imply,  that  Paul  found  it 
impossible  to  keep  the  letter  of  the  Law,  for  he  says  of 
himself,  "  as  touching  the  righteousness  which  is  in  the 
law,  found  blameless. "29  It  was  an  inner  failure  that 
Paul  realized.  His  intensely  earnest  spirit  could  not  be 
satisfied  with  outer  righteousness  such  as  his  teachers 
had  taught  him.  Yet  there  seemed  no  way  of  escape 
except  in  out-doing  his  teachers  in  zeal  for  the  Law. 
Gamaliel  counselled  against  persecution^o^but  Paul  could 
not  agree  to  such  easy  methods  if  the  Law  really  was  the 
foundation  of  all  righteousness.  Yet,  as  he  was  on  the 
way  to  Damascus  to  persecute  followers  of  the  new 
teacher  the  tragedy  of  his  situation  must  have  been 
apparent  to  him.  Here  he  was  hunting  down  men  and 
women  to  the  death  because  they  believed  in  one  as 
Messiah,  the  acknowledgment  of  whom  would  make  void 
the  whole  Law,  yet  in  his  heart  he  was  feeling  that  this 
Law  could  not  be  worth  all  this  suffering  since  it  brought 
not  peace  and  righteousness  but  inner  agony  and  death. 
His  spirit  cried, 

"  O,  wretched  man  that  I  am,  who  shall  deliver  me 
out  of  the  body  of  this  death." 

God  heard  his  cry  and  deliverance   came  "  through 
Jesus  Christ. "^1 


29  PhU.  iii.  6. 

30  Acts  V.   34-39- 

3'  Rom.  vii,  24,  25. 


CHAPTER  V 

Paul's  transforming  experience 

The  whole  of  Paul's  life-work  follows  from  one  trans- 
forming experience.  What  does  Paul  himself  tell  us 
about  it  ?  Turning  to  the  one  place  where  he  speaks 
of  the  events  of  his  life  in  chronological  order,i  w^e  find 
that  having  spoken  of  his  advancement  in  the  Jewish 
religion  which  culminated  in  the  persecution  of  the 
church  he  says,  "It  pleased  God  ...  to  reveal 
his  Son  in  me. "2  Next  he  speaks  of  going  to  Arabia 
and  Damascus.  It  was,  then,  as  Luke  says,^  when 
Paul  was  on  the  way  to  Damascus  to  capture  the  dis- 
ciples there  that  something  took  place  which  made  the 
persecutor  no  longer  an  enemy  but  a  "  servant  of 
Christ."*  What  was  this  experience  ?  Paul  answers : 
"  It  was  the  good  pleasure  of  God  ...  to 
reveal  his  Son  in  me." 

How  can  we  fathom  such  words  ?  They  take  us 
out  of  the  world  of  external  events  into  the  world  of 
souls.  The  unseen  world  appears  to  our  inner  e^^es 
as  we  ponder  these  words  :  "to  reveal  his  Son  in  me." 
Certainly  they  indicate  that  this  was  primarily  an  inner 
experience  ;  Paul's  inner  eyes  perceived  Jesus  ;  he  saw 
that  he  was  not  accursed  of  God,  but  His  beloved  Son  ; 
he  felt  this  revelation  shaking  the  very  foundations  of 
his  being  and  becoming  a  part  of  himself  henceforth — 
"  his  Son  in  me."      All  that  the  experience  meant  no 

^  Gal.  i.  and  ii. 

2  Gal.  i.   15. 

3  Acts  ix.   1-3;    xxii.  4-6;    xxvi.   11,   12. 
.    *  Gal.  i.   15,  16  ;    Gal.  i.  10. 

49 


50  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

words  can  make  clear,  but  more  of  Paul's  own  vyords 
will  give  further  illumination. 

"  God  .  .  shined  in  our  hearts  to  give  the  light  of 
the  knowledge  of  the  glory  of  God  in  the  face  of  Jesus 
Christ. "5 

"  God  sent  forth  the  Spirit  of  his  Son  into  our  heart 
crying,  Abba,  Father. "^ 

In  these  words  Paul  describes  the  experiences  of 
others  as  well  as  of  himself,  but  they  take  their 
form  from  the  memory  of  his  own  experience.  Here 
the  change  is  "in  the  heart  "  ;  it  is  the  shining  of 
an  inner  light  ;  the  light  reveals  the  face  of  Jesus 
as  Christ  ;  the  glory  of  God  is  seen  to  shine  in 
the  face  of  Jesus ;  the  heart  cries,  Father.  From 
these  passages  it  is  clear  that  while  the  experience  is 
inner  yet  it  has  to  do  with  the  actual  Jesus  who  has 
lived  and  died.  Paul  seems  to  feel  that  he  has  actually 
met  Jesus  in  this  inner  experience  ;  it  is  not  simply 
that  he  has  seen  some  truth  about  Jesus  or  his  teaching, 
but  that  he  has  had  a  "  revelation  of  Jesus  "  himself, ^ 
and  seen  in  his  face  the  glory  of  God  shining.  That 
this  does  not  press  these  words  too  far  is  clear  from 
other  passages  where  Paul  declares  he  has  seen  Jesus  : 

"  Have  I  not  seen  Jesus  our  Lord  ?  "^ 
Thus  he  cries  when  he  wishes  to  show  that  he  is  a 
true  apostle  and  defines  what  he  means  when  he  puts 
himself  as  the  last  in  the  list  of  those  to  whom  Jesus 
appeared  after  his  death. 

"  Last  of  all     .     .     he  appeared  to  me  also."^ 

It  is  clear  then,  that  Paul  now  believed  that  Jesus 
still  lived,  though  he  had  been  crucified,  and  the  proof 
of  this  was  that  he  had  been  revealed  in  him.     There 

^  2  Cor  iv.  6. 

*  Gal.  iv.  6. 
'  GaL  i.   12. 

^  I  Cor.  ix.   I. 

*  I  Cor.  XV.  5-8.  That  this  refers  to  the  same  experience  as 
Gal.  i.  15  is  practically  certain  and  is  perhaps  shown  by  his 
mention  of  the  persecution  of  the  church  in  the  same  connection, 
verse  9. 


Paul's  transforming  experience  51 

is  nothing  in  his  words  to  indicate  any  external  hap- 
penings, but  the  accounts  in  Acts  make  it  primarily 
external.  Here  the  light  which  shined  in  Paul's  heart 
has  become  a  light  in  the  heavens  accompanied  by  an 
audible  voice.  No  doubt  Luke  had  often  heard  Paul 
tell  about  this  crucial  time.  Two  of  the  accounts  in 
Acts  he  puts  into  the  mouth  of  Paul  probably  for  that 
reason.  But  consider  how  difficult  it  would  be  for  Paul 
to  explain  clearly  such  an  inner  experience.  If  he  said, 
As  I  journeyed  to  Damascus  to  persecute  the  Church, 
God  shined  in  my  heart  and  His  Son  was  revealed  in 
me,  and  I  saw  Jesus  our  Lord,  it  is  probable  that  man}^  of 
his  listeners  would  have  thought  that  a  light  shined 
around  Paul  and  that  he  saw  Jesus  in  the  clouds.  Some 
people  find  it  hard  to  believe  that  inner  things  are 
real,  and  there  could  be  no  doubt  that  Paul  believed  that 
he  had  reallv  seen  Jesus.  Now  was  Luke  one  of  his 
listeners  who  almost  unconsciously  thought  as  outer 
happenings  things  that  Paul  described  as  inner  events  ? 
This  question  cannot  be  definitely  answered,  because 
nowhere  does  Paul  definitely  say  anything  for  or 
against  the  appearance  of  an  outer  light.  Indeed,  Paul 
nowhere  gives  a  circumstantial  account  of  his  experi- 
ence. From  his  brief  references  we  are  sure  only  of  the 
inner  light  and  simply  have  no  evidence  about  an  outer 
light.  Let  us  look  at  the  chief  points  in  Luke's  three 
accounts  (see  p.  53). 

From  the  above  it  is  evident  that  we  cannot  give  a 
perfectty  clear  picture  of  events  according  to  Luke. 
The  accounts  disagree  as  to  who  saw  the  light,  who 
fell  to  the  ground,  and  who  heard  the  voice.  But  it  is 
noteworthy  that  they  do  agree  on  the  words,  "  Saul, 
Saul,  why  persecutest  thou  me  ?  "  and  Paul's  cry, 
"  Who  art  thou  Lord  ?  "  with  the  answer  "  I  am  Jesus 
whom  thou  persecutest."  These  words,  then,  are 
the  part  of  the  incident  most  clearly  remembered  by 
Luke  from  the  accounts  of  Paul,  and  it  is  interesting 
that  they  indicate  the  same  thing  as  the  words  of  the 
epistles,  namely,  the  simple  recognition  of  Jesus,  the 


52  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

consciousness  of  being  in  his  presence.  Paul  may 
have  also  said  in  relating  the  event  that  he  saw  a  light 
from  heaven  above  the  brightness  of  the  sun  and  heard 
a  voice  with  his  outer  ears,  but  it  is  only  the  inner  aspect 
of  this  experience  of  which  we  are  sure  from  his  letters, 
and  which,  therefore,  is  important  for  understanding  the 
complete  change  that  now  comes  to  Paul's  life  and  thought. 
That  this  inner  change  was  not  unconnected  with 
his  earnest  but  futile  endeavour  to  find  righteousness 
by  the  keeping  of  the  law  is  shown  by  another  of  his 
references  to  this  experience : 

"  I  through  the  law  died  into  the  law,  that  I  might 
live  unto  God.  I  have  been  crucified  with  Christ  ;  yet 
I  live  ;  and  yet  no  longer  I,  but  Christ  livethin  me  "i^ 

His  very  determination  to  uphold  the  Law,  though  it 
drove  him  to  take  the  lives  of  his  own  brethren,  brought 
him  to  the  point  of  death  to  that  Law  and  the  finding 
of  righteousness  in  a  new  way.  It  was  like  passing 
through  the  crucifixion  with  Jesus,  but  it  was  worth  the 
suffering,  for  it  gave  a  new  life  within,  able  to  overcome 
tendencies  to  covet. ^^  Indeed,  Paul  declares  that  it  is 
the  holy  life  of  Jesus  the  Messiah  within — "  Christ 
liveth  in  me."  Thus  the  Son  of  God  is  revealed  within 
him, 12  and  becomes  henceforth  his  constant  companion  ; 
the  light  of  the  knowledge  of  the  glory  of  God  is  revealed 
in  the  face  oi  Jesus  Christ  ;i^  the  spirit  of  Paul  in  the 
presence  of  the  Spirit  of  the  Son  finds  a  transforming 
love.i*  That  process  is  begun  which  he  afterwards 
describes  in  words  which  can  have  been  suggested  only 
by  experience  : 

"  We  all  with  unveiled  face  reflecting  as  a  mirror 
the  glory  of  the  Lord,  are  transformed  into  the  same 
image  from  glory  to  glor}'."!^ 

^°  Gal.  ii.  iQ,  20. 

11  See  ch.  IV.,  p.  47. 

12  Gal.  i.   15. 

1^  2  Cor.  iv.  6. 

1*  Gal.  iv.  6. 

^"  2  Cor.  iii.   18.     See  Rom.  xii.  2. 


Paul's  transforming  experience  53 


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CHAPTER  VI 

CHANGES  IX  THOUGHT  AND  LIFE 

"  Immediately  I  conferred  not  with  flesh  and  blood  ; 
neither  went  I  up  to  Jerusalem  ,  .  .  but  I  went 
away  into  Arabia  ;  and  again  I  returned  to  Damascus."^ 

God  speaks  in  various  ways.  Often  Paul  had  heard 
His  voice  through  the  Law  and  the  Prophets,  and  in  the 
words  of  living  teachers.  Sometimes,  too,  a  voice 
within  him  must  have  called  him  to  higher  things  than 
the  books  or  the  scribes  taught.  Now  he  feels  himself 
immediately  in  the  presence  of  God  whose  "  good 
pleasure  "  it  is  to  "reveal  his  Son"  in  him.  This  con- 
sciousness makes  him  wish  to  shut  out  all  other  voices, 
until  the  full  meaning  of  this  experience  should  be  clear 
to  him.  "  Immediately  "  he  goes  away  to  Arabia^ 
without  conferring  with  "  flesh  and  blood. "^  He  speaks 
of  this  in  his  Galatian  letter,  because  he  wants  to  make 
it  clear  that  his  "  Gospel  "  is  directly  from  God  : 

"  For  I  make  known  to  you,  brethren,"  he  writes, 
' '  as  touching  the  gospel  that  was  preached  by  me,  that  it 
is  not  after  man.  For  neither  did  I  receive  it  from  man. 
nor  was  I  taught  it,  but  it  came  to  me  through  revelation 
of  Jesus  Christ."* 

Though  these  words  were  written  long  after  the  great 
turning  point  in  Paul's  life,  they  certainly  look  back  to 

^  Gal.  i.   i6,   17. 

2  This  was  probably  not  the  Arabian  peninsula  far  to  the 
south,  but  the  country  around  Damascus,  which  was  then  in 
the  hands  of  the  Nabateans,  who  were  originally  from  Arabia, 
and  were  therefore  called  Arabians.     See  2  Mac.  v.  8.    See  p.  59. 

3  The  phrase  "  conferred  not  with  flesh  and  blood  "  indicates 
a  remembrance  of  the  desire  to  be  alone. 

*  Gal.  i.  II,  12. 

54 


CHANGES   IN   THOUGHT   AND   LIFE  55 

that  moment  as  the  origin  of  his  Gospel. ^  This  word 
Gospel  gives  a  clue  to  the  meaning  to  Paul  of  the 
"  revelation  of  Jesus  Christ  "  as  he  thought  it  over 
perhaps  in  Arabia.  It  was  good  news  to  him,  but  not 
to  himself  alone  ;  it  was  news  which  must  be  told  ; 
furthermore  it  was  to  be  told  to  Gentiles.  That  moment 
of  illumination  was  crucial  for  the  world  as  well  as  for 
Paul,  as  he  himself  said  : 

"  When  it  was  the  good  pleasure  of  God  ...  to 
reveal  his  Son  in  me,  that  I  might  preach  him  among  the 
Gentiles. ""^ 

Paul's  experience  on  the  way  to  Damascus,  then, 
made  him  the  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles. ^  But  how  could 
this  possibly  be  ?  Paul  was  a  Jew  ;  his  education  had 
centred  his  interest  in  the  Jewish  Law  and  Messiah  ; 
now  the  revelation  has  convinced  him  that  the  Jeru- 
salem disciples  are  right  and  Jesus  is  the  long-expected 
Messiah.8  Certainly  this  ought  to  be  good  news  to 
Jews  but  what  could  it  have  to  do  with  Gentiles  who  had 
never  kept  the  Law  of  God  and  had  not  so  much  as  heard, 
perhaps,  that  a  Messiah  might  come  ?  This  astounding 
conclusion  of  Paul's  that  Jesus  had  a  message  for  the 
whole  world,  could  have  been  reached  on  one  condition 
only — the  abolition  of  that  ancient  wall  of  partition, 
the  Jewish  Law.  That  this  is  exactly  what  Paul  saw 
had  been  accomplished  by  the  death  and  appearance  of 

^  Of  course  in  using  later  letters  to  explain  early  events,  we 
run  the  risk  of  using  words  and  phrases  too  early  in  Paul's  life. 
Here  we  cannot  perhaps,  be  sure  that  Paul  used  the  word  Gospel 
at  the  time  of  his  conversion.  Nevertheless,  he  believed  that  the 
elements  that  made  up  his  Gospel  originated  then,  and  also  the 
impulse  to  tell  it  to  the  Gentiles.  It  was  one  of  Jesus'  words. 
Could  Paul  have  known  this  ? 

*  Gal.  i.   15,   16. 

'  Gal.  i.   I. 

8  See  ch.  V.  This  is  implied  in  all  Paul's  words  about  his 
conversion,  and  in  all  that  we  know  about  his  ministry.  All  is 
inexplicable  if  he  did  not  at  the  moment  of  conversion  believe 
Jesus  to  be  Messiah.  Yet  he  does  not  definitely  state  this. 
But  see  Acts  ix.  22. 


56  THE    LIFE    AND   MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

Jesus  is  shown  1)\-  words  he  wrote  much  later,  but  which 
come,  in  idea  at  least,  out  of  this  crisis  : 

"  Christ  redeemed  us  from  the  curse  of  the  Law 
having  become  a  curse  for  us  ;  for  it  is  written,  Cursed 
is  everyone  that  hangcth  on  a  tree  ;  that  upon  the 
Gentiles  might  come  the  blessing  of  Abraham  in  ( Jirist 
Jesus.""^ 

These  words  show,  also,  how  it  was  that  Paul  ex- 
plained the  fact  that  Jesus'  resurrection  had  abolished 
the  Law.  "  Cursed  is  everj^one  that  hangeth  on  a 
tree,"  said  the  Law.  But  Jesus  broke  the  power  of  that 
curse  by  showing  that  he  still  lived  and  therefore  was 
not  accursed.  He  accomplished  it,  iiulced,  at  the 
price  of  terrible  suffering,  by  actuahy  becoming  "  a 
curse  for  us,"  but  the  result  was  epoch  making,  for  upon 
the  Gentiles  could  now  come  "  the  blessing  of  Abraham 
in  Christ  Jesus." 

That  it  was  the  resurrection  of  Jesus  which  con- 
vinced Paul  of  this  is  shown  by  words  which  he  uses 
in  his  Roman  letter  : 

"  Who  was  declared  to  be  the  Son  of  God  with  power, 
according  to  the  spirit  of  holiness,  by  the  resurrection 
of  the  dead,  even  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord."i^ 

It  was  "  the  spirit  of  holiness "  in  Jesus  that 
made  it  impossible  for  God  to  regard  him  as  accursed 
according  to  the  Law.  It  was  the  holiness  of  Jesus 
that  made  him  live,  that  made  him  Christ  and 
Lord.  And  because  of  his  holiness,  God  had 
been  able  to  make  him  known  to  the  world  as 
"  his  Son,"  b}'  giving  him  power  to  appear  to  his  dis- 
ciples and  to  Paul  that  they  might  be  filled  with  joy 
and  give  this  joy  to  others.  Was  not  this  good  news 
indeed  ?  There  was  no  danger  that  sin  would  result 
from  the  abolition  of  the  Law  because  it  was  the  holiness 
of  Jesus  that  had  abolished  it.  Therefore  the  holy  life 
of  Jesus  would  create  a  new  way  of  righteousness. 

^  Gal.  iii.    13,    14. 
1°  Rom.  i.  4. 


J 


CHANGES    IN    THOUGHT   AND    LIFE  57 

All  his  life  Paulliad  believed  that  God  cared  especially 
for  his  own  race ;  they  were  the  Chosen  People, 
They  were  separated  from  others  by  the  holy  Law. 
Others  might  become  part  of  the  elect  people  by  keeping 
that  Law.  Some  were  doing  so.^i  But  Paul  must  have 
known  that  the  Greek  and  Roman  people  whom  he  knew 
in  Tarsus,  and  had  met  in  various  ways  connected  with 
his  business,  would  never  adopt  that  Law.  To  offer 
salvation  to  them  on  that  condition  was  little  better 
than  leaving  them  entirely  without  hope.  Had  Paul 
often  wondered  why  God  seemed  to  care  so  little  for 
Gentiles  ?  Had  he  longed,  to  have  the  great  barrier 
between  himself  and  some  of  his  friends  removed  ? 
Had  he  v/ished  that  the  One  God  of  Israel  might  manifest 
Himself  in  greater  love  to  the  whole  world  ?  At  any 
rate,  he  is  ready  to  see  the  granting  of  such  desires 
in  the  fact  that  Jesus  still  lives.  God  cannot  give  His 
message  to  entirely  unprepared  souls.  Not  everyone 
to  whom  Jesus  might  have  appeared  on  the  way  to 
Damascus  could  have  become  an  Apostle.  Perhaps 
to  many  he  could  not  even  have  appeared.  But  Paul's 
spirit  is  prepared  to  see  and  to  interpret  the  great  fact 
of  God's  love  manifest  to  the  world  in  Jesus  Christ,  the 
Living  One. 

Such  changes  in  his  thought  more  or  less  clearly  per- 
ceived at  the  moment  of  the  revelation  on  the  way  to 
Damascus  had  driven  Paul  to  Arabia,  where  perhaps  he 
thought  it  out  more  fully.  Then  he  says,  "  Again  I 
returned  to  Damascus."  This  is  the  only  reference  Paul 
makes  to  his  visit  +o  Damxascus  immediately  after  the 
revelation,  but  Luke  tells  of  it.  His  three  accounts 
continue  thus  :  (See  next  page.) 

When  Paul  arrived  in  Damascus,  perhaps  dazed  and 
blinded  by  the  soul-stirring  experience  through  which 
he  had  just  passed,  he  may  have  been  helped  bv 
Ananias,  but  one  thing  is  clear  from  Paul's  letters^- 
he  could  not  have  been  told  of  his  Gentile  mission  by 

'^  See  ch.  VIII.,  pp.  84,  85. 


58 


THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 


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CHANGES    IN    THOUGHT   AND    LIFE  59 

Ananias  as  Luke's  first  two  accounts  say,i2  since  Paul 
says,  "  I  conferred  not  with  flesh  and  blood,"  and  de- 
clares that  he  became  an  "  apostle,  not  from  men,  neither 
through  man."i^  He  may  have  announced  that  he  was  a 
Christian  and  have  been  baptised,^*  but  the  consciousness 
of  his  Gentile  Gospel  must  have  come  to  him  directly 
as,  indeed,  Luke  also  says  in  his  third  account.  Either 
Luke  had  never  heard  of  Paul's  stay  in  Arabia,  or  did  not 
think  it  important  enough  to  mention.  Such  an  eager, 
active  person  as  Paul  probably  would  not  remain  in 
quiet  long,  and,  no  doubt,  he  returned  soon  to  Damascus, 
and,  joining  himself  to  the  disciples,  began  preaching. 
Paul  himself  says  nothing  about  preaching  in  Damascus, 
but  a  reference  in  one  of  his  Corinthian  letters  gives 
evidence  that  he  did  something  in  Damascus  which  made 
Aretas,!^  the  king  of  the  Arabians,  his  enemy  : 

1^  Note  in  what  different  ways  Acts  tells  of  the  Gentile  mission. 
In  ch.  ix.  it  is  announced  to  Ananias,  who  implies  it  in  his  words 
to  Paul.  In  ch.  xxii.  Ananias  tells  Paul,  but  afterwards  Christ 
himself  tells  Paul  in  Jerusalem.  In  ch.  xxvi.  Christ  himself 
tells  Paul  on  the  way  to  Damascus.  Ch.  xxvi.  then,  agrees 
more  nearly  with  Paul's  account  in  Gal.  i.  15,  16.  That  Paul 
sometimes  received  messages  from  God  through  others  see 
ch.  ix.,  86,  87. 

^^  Gal.  i.   16  ;    i.   I. 

^^  That  Paul  was  baptised  some  time  is  shown  by  Rom.  vi.  3. 

^^  The  Nabateans  were  an  Arab  people  that  had  pushed  their 
way  northward.  Probably  they  are  the  same  tribes  referred  to 
in  Gen.  xxv.  13,  and  Isa.  Ix.  7,  as  the  Nebaioth.  As  early  as 
85  B.C.  they  had  ruled  the  cit}^  of  Damascus.  Then  in  60  b.c. 
the  Roman  Pompey  had  come  and  the  coins  of  the  city  show  that 
up  to  34  A.D.  it  was  a  Roman  city.  But  the  statement  in  2  Cor. 
xi.  32,  about  Aretas  indicates  that  he  has  control  in  Damascus 
when  Paul  is  there.  Now  Aretas  was  King  of  the  Nabateans  from 
9  B.C.  to  40  A.D.  But  what  had  Aretas  to  do  with  the  cit}^  of 
Damascus  during  that  time  ?  If  we  could  answer  that  question 
we  might  be  able  to  determine  the  date  at  which  Paul  was  in 
Damascus.  There  are  several  possibilities  :  (i)  Aretas  may 
have  been  King  in  Damascus  under  the  Romans,  much  as  Herod 
was  in  Galilee,  though  it  had  Roman  coins,  etc.  (2)  Aretas  may 
have  had  a  governor,  or  "  ethnarch,"  in  Damascus  to  look  after 
the  Arabs  living  there.  The  Jews  had  an  ethnarch  in  Alexandria. 
(Jos.  Ant.  XIV.,  vii.  2),  and  in  Antioch.  (See  ch.  VIII.,  p.  75, 
note  ^.)     (3)  The  city  may  have  been    restored  to   Aretas  by 


6o  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

"  In  Damascus,"  he  says,  "  the  governor  under  Aretas 
the  king  guarded  the  city  of  the  Damascenes,  in  order 
to  take  me  ;  and  through  a  window  was  I  let  down  in  a 
basket  by  the  wall,  and  escaped  his  hands. "^^ 

This  is  in  agreement  with  Luke's  statement  that  Paul 
escaped  from  Damascus  through  the  wall  and  tends  to 
confirm  this  further  statement  that, 

"  Saul  .  .  confounded  the  Jews  which  dwelt 
at  Damascus,  proving  that  Jesus  is  the  Christ. "^'^ 

Aretas  would  not  have  taken  any  action  against 
Paul  unless  he  had  been  creating  some  kind  of  a  dis- 
turbance among  Damascus  people,  and  it  is  doubtful 
whether  he  would  have  done  so  except  at  the  instigation 
of  Jews. IS  To  him  and  to  other  Gentiles  the  preaching 
that  Jesus  was  Messiah  or  that  He  had  a  message  for 
Gentiles  would  not  seem  dangerous  and  disturbing,  but 
to  the  Jews  it  would  seem  revolutionary. ^^ 

It  may  seem  strange  to  find  Paul  preaching  to  Jews 
when  he  has  just  seen  the  fact  that  Jesus  has  a  message 


Caligula  when  be  became  emperor  in  37  a.d.  Suetonius  says  of 
Caligula  in  ch.  XVI.,  "  He  made  up  to  many  their  losses  sustained 
by  fire  ;  and  when  he  restored  their  kingdoms  to  any  princes  he 
likewise  allowed  them  all  the  arrears  of  the  taxes."  Did  he  give 
back  Damascus  to  Aretas  ?  If  he  did  then  Paul  was  there 
betv.een  ij  and  40  a.d.,  but  there  is  no  way  to  prove  it  at  present. 
The  fact  that  there  have  been  found  no  Roman  coins  from 
34  to  62  A.D.  favours  it,  but  does  not  prove  it.  We  can  be  sure, 
then,  only  that  Paul  was  in  Damascus  while  Aretas  was  King  of 
the  Nabatean  A.rabs,  that  is,  before  40  a.d.  For  further  reading 
on  the  history  of  the  Nabateans,  see  Schiirer,  "  Hist,  of  N.T. 
Times,"  Div.  I.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  249  ff.  and  Mommsen,  "  The 
Provinces  of  the  Roman  Empire,"  Vol.  II,  Bk.  8,  ch.  10. 

^^  2  Cor  xi.   32,   33. 

^^  Acts  ix.  25,  22. 

^^  Lake  thinks  that  Paul  had  done  preaching  in  Arabia  also, 
and  had  there  stirred  up  the  Jews,  and  "  attracted  the  hostile 
attention  of  Aretas."  Lake,  "  The  Earlier  Epistles  of  Paul," 
pp.  320-323. 

1^  It  was  the  Jews  who  in  the  same  vv^ay,  procured  the  death 
of  Jesus. 


CHANGES  IN  THOUGHT  AND  LIFE         6l 

for  Gentiles,  but  he  does  not  lose  his  interest  in  his 
own  people,  though  he  considers  himself  henceforth  the 
apostle  to  the  Gentiles. ^o  The  work  of  proclaiming  the 
Gospel  to  the  Gentiles  would,  of  course,  be  hindered  if 
the  Jews  opposed  it.  Furthermore,  the  Jewish  syna- 
gogue was  the  best  place  for  Paul  to  find  Gentiles  who 
would  be  most  glad  to  hear  that  they  might  come  to 
know  the  One  God  without  keeping  the  Jewish  Law.^i 
It  is  likely,  therefore,  that  Paul,  upon  returning  to 
Damascus,  joined  the  disciples  of  Jesus,  and  began 
preaching  in  the  synagogue  to  the  Gentiles  who  came 
there,  and  to  the  Jews  who  secured  the  help  of  Aretas 
to  drive  him  out  of  the  city.  Luke's  words,  "  The 
Jews  took  council  together  to  kill  him  "  and  "  watched 
the  gates  also  day  and  night  that  they  might  kill  him  " 
are  equivalent  to  Paul's  "  Aretas  the  king  guarded  the 
cit}^  of  the  Damascenes,  in  order  to  take  me."^^ 

The  great  change  that  had  come  to  Paul's  mind  and 
spirit  had  produced  corresponding  changes  in  his  life. 
He  had  left  Jerusalem  as  a  persecutor;  he  is  now 
returning  as  one  of  the  persecuted  ;  he  had  set  out  for 
Damascus  believing  that  Jesus  the  Crucified  endangered 
the  revelation  of  God  to  man  ;  now  he  is  barely  escaping 
from  Damascus  with  his  life,  because  he  believes  that 
Jesus,  the  Risen  One,  proves  God's  love  to  the  whole 
world. 


20  Gal.  ii.  8,  9.  ;    Rom.  i.  13,  &c. 

21  See  ch.  VIII.,  pp.  84,  85.  Josephus  "  Wars,"  II.,  xx.,  2,  says 
that  most  of  the  leading  women  of  Damascus  were  "  addicted 
to  the  Jewish  religion."  So  Paul  would  certainly  find  rrany 
Gentiles  in  the  synagogue  there. 

22  Acts  ix.  25  ;    2  Cor.  xi.  32. 


CHAPTER  VII 

PAUL'S    FURTHER    PREPARATION 

"  Then  after  three  da3s  I  went  up  to  Jerusalem  to  visit 
Cephas,  and  tarried  with  him  fifteen  days.  But  other 
of  the  apostles  saw  I  none,  save  James  the  Lord's 
brother."! 

With,  what  eager  interest  Paul  must  now  have  talked 
with  Peter  the  disciple  who  had  known  Jesus  from  the 
first  beginnings  of  his  ministry  in  Galilee  to  the 
last  tragic  days  in  Jerusalem,  to  whom  also  he  had 
' '  appeared  "  since  death !  They  could  not  fail  to  talk  to- 
gether of  Jesus'  Messiahship,  since  Paul  is  now  convinced. 
Peter  had  become  a  disciple  of  Jesus  before  he  knew 
of  his  Messiahship,  simply  attracted  by  his  wonderful 
personality.  He  had  left  his  fishing  to  go  with  Jesus, 
and  had  seen  the  marvellous  course  of  his  ministry 
through  Galilee,  and  had  followed  him  into  exile  when 
he  was  driven  out  of  Galilee.  During  all  this  close 
companionship  with  Jesus  he  had  come  to  see  how  com- 
pletely his  life  was  in  touch  with  the  life  of  God,  and 
had  become  convinced  that  he  must  be  the  Anointed 
of  God,  the  Messiah,  although  he  had  not  come  as  the 
Messiah  was  expected  to  appear.  When  one  day  they 
were  walking  along  the  road  near  Caesarea  Philippi, 
Jesus  had  asked  of  the  disciples. 

"  ^^  ho  say  ^e  that  I  am  ?  "  Peter  had  replied, 
"  Thou  art  the  Messiah."2 

Peter's  faith  had  been  severely  shaken,  when  Jesus 
said  that  he  proposed  to  go  to  Jerusalem  and  there 
meet  death,  but  Peter  had  remained  with  him.      In 

1  Gal.  i.   i8,   19.     Cephas  is  the  Aramaic  for  Peter. 
'  Mk.  viii.  27-33. 

62 


Paul's  further  preparation  63 

the  trial  Peter  had  been  so  discouraged  that  he  had 
actually  denied  ever  having  known  Jesus.  When  death 
did  come  to  Jesus  it  seemed  that  all  Peter's  confidence 
in  God  and  truth  was  at  an  end,  and  he  fled  to  Galilee. 
But  then  Jesus  had  appeared  to  him  there, ^  and  thus 
made  all  clear  to  him  by  showing  that  he  still  lives 
and  is  in  truth  the  Messiah.  Of  this  appearance  to  Peter, 
and  of  several  other  appearances,  of  which  Paul  prob- 
ably learned  more  fully  during  this  visit,  he  speaks  in 
his  Corinthian  letter  : 

"  I  delivered  unto  you  first  of  all  that  which  I  also 
received,  how  that  Christ  died  .  .  .  that  he  was 
buried,  and  that  he  hath  been  raised  on  the  third  day 
.  that  he  appeared  to  Cephas ;  then  to  the 
twelve  ;  then  he  appeared  to  above  five  hundred 
brethren  at  once  ;  then  he  appeared  to  James  ;  then  to 
all  the  apostles  ;  and  last  of  all  .  .  he  appeared  to 
me  also."* 

Here  in  Jerusalem  Paul  was  able  to  compare  his  ex- 
perience with  that  of  Peter  and  James  and  others  of 
whom  they  told  him.  Apparently  he  found  the  appear- 
ances of  Jesus  to  them  not  greatly  different  from  the 
appearance  to  himself,  for  he  recounts  them  in  this  list 
where  differences  of  time  only  are  noted.  J  esus  appeared 
to  Peter  first  and  to  Paul  last.  If  only  we  possessed 
the  accounts  of  the  appearances  to  Peter  and  James  we 
might  get  further  light  here  on  the  nature  of  the  appear- 
ance to  Paul,  but  since  we  do  not,  and  it  is  uncertain 

^  That  Mk.  xvi.  9-20  is  a  later  addition  is  proved  by  its  omission 
from  our  oldest  MSS.  This  makes  it  probable  that  the  end  of 
Mark  is  lost.  It  is  practically  certain  that  the  lost  ending  of 
the  Gospel  of  Mark  gave  an  account  of  the  appearance  to  Peter 
in  Galilee.  Mk.  xiv.  28,  and  xvi.  7,  imply  that  such  a  narrative 
is  to  follow.  Compare  also  the  account  in  the  "  Gospel  of 
Peter  "  which  is  based  on  Mark,  and  which  pictures  the  disciples 
returning  to  Galilee  in  sorrow,  not  having  heard  of  the 
resurrection.  This  makes  it  still  more  probable  that  Peter 
was  covninced  that  Jesus  lived  by  an  appearance  to  himself,  not 
by  the  empty  tomb.  See  Lake's  "  The  Resurrection  of  Jesus 
Christ."     See   "  Appearances  "   in  his  index. 

*  I  Cor.  XV.   3-8  / 


64  THE    LITE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

to  which  of  the  Gospel  accounts  the  appearances  to  the 
twelve  and  the  five  hundred  refer,  we  can  say  only 
that  Paul  learned  nothing  from  Peter  and  James  that 
changed  his  idea  that  Jesus'  Spirit  still  lived.  He  never 
says  whether  he  thought  the  body  of  Jesus  was  raised 
or  not.  The  words  in  the  above  list,  "  he  hath  been 
raised  on  the  third  da3%"^  contain  the  only  reference 
in  Paul's  letters  to  the  accounts  of  the  resurrection  of 
Jesus"  body.  Evidently  what  was  of  supreme  importance 
to  Paul  was  the  fact  that  Jesus  still  lived  as  Spirit,  and 
therefore  could  speak  to  the  spirits  of  his  disciples. 
His  visit  to  Peter  and  James  must  have  strengthened 
this  conviction  which  he  had  drawn  from  his  own 
experience.  Perhaps  James,*^  like  Paul,  had  become  a 
disciple  because  of  an  appearance  of  Jesus  to  himself. 

Did  Paul  do  any  preaching  while  visiting  Peter  in 
Jerusalem  ?  At  least  he  did  not  do  any  work  that  made 
him  known  to  the  churches  of  Judaea,  for  when  he  left 
he  said  : 

"  I  was  still  unknown  by  face  to  the  churches  af  Judaea 
which  were  in  Christ. '"^  Luke's  three  accounts  of  events- 
in  Jerusalem  are  as  follows  :    (see  page  65). 

^  It  is  worth  noting  that  Paul  says  that  Jesus  rose  "  on  the 
third  day,  according  to  the  Scriptures."  Probably  he  has  ki 
mind  Hos.  vi.  2. 

^  It  is  not  certain  whether  in  his  list  of  appearances  Paul 
means  James  the  son  of  Zebedee,  or  James  the  brother  of  Jesus. 
But  it  was  the  latter  that  Paul  knew  in  Jerusalem,  and  therefore 
probably  the  one  to  whom  he  refers  in  the  list.  There  is  a  late 
and  probably  lictitious  account  of  an  appearance  to  James 
coming  from  the  so-called  Gospel  of  the  Hebrews,  which  is  as 
follows  : 

"  But  the  Lord,  when  he  had  given  the  linen  sheet  to  a  servant 
of  the  Priest,  went  to  James  and  appeared  to  him,  for  James  had 
sworn  that  he  would  not  eat  bread  from  that  hour  in  which  he 
had  drunk  the  cup  of  the  Lord  until  he  saw  him  rising  from  those 
that  slept.  .  .  .  The  Lord  said,  '  Bring  ye  a  table  and  bread 
.  He  took  bread  and  blessed  and  brake,  and  gave  to  James 
the  Just,  and  said  to  him,  '  My  brother,  eat  thy  bread,  for  the 
Son  of  Man  has  risen  from  them  that  sleep.'  " — Quoted  by 
Jerome  in  "  Concerning  Illustrious  Men,"  2. 

'  Gal.  i.  22. 


1 


Paul's  further  preparation       65 

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66  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

It  is  impossible  that  Paul  should  have  gone  in  and  out 
preaching  boldly  among  the  churches  in  Jerusalem,  as 
Luke's  accounts  imply,  because  Paul  himself  says  that 
he  was  "unknown  by  face  to  the  churches  of  Judaea."^ 
How,  then,  did  Luke  happen  to  make  a  mistake  on  this 
point  ?  One  possibility  is  that  Paul  spoke  to  the  Grecian 
Jews  not  to  the  churches,  and  that  Luke,  knowing  that 
he  preached  there,  supposed  that  he  was  associated  with 
the  churches.  Did  Paul  perhaps  go  back  to  the  syna- 
gogue of  the  Alexandrians  and  Cilicians  where  he  had 
helped  stir  up  the  feeling  against  Stephen  P^  If  so, 
it  is  no  wonder  that  they  tried  to  bring  now  the  same  fate 
upon  him  that  he  had  helped  bring  upon  Stephen, 
for  they  could  not  understand  the  revolution  that  had 
taken  place  within  Paul.  At  any  rate  Paul  was  only  a 
fortnight  in  Jerusalem,  for  he  says  he  tarried  only 
fifteen  days  with  Peter.  The  words  describing  his  next 
journey  are  : — 

"  Then  I  came  into  the  regions  of  Syria  and  Cilicia."^" 
Syria-Cilicia-Phoenicia  was  the  name  of  the  Roman 
province  to  which  Tarsus  belonged,  therefore  Luke  is 
probably  right  when  he  says  that  Paul  sailed  from 
Caesarea  to  Tarsus.  Perhaps  it  was  Peter  and  James 
who  went  to  Caesarea  with  him,  for  Paul  says  he  did 
not  know  many  "  brethren. "^^ 

Paul,  then,  goes  back  to  his  native  city,  and  for  ten 
years  or  more  we  know  nothing  about  him.  Never- 
theless they  must  have  been  important  3^ears,  and  one 
cannot  help  guessing  that  he  came  during  this  time  to 
know  better  the  Gentile  world  to  which  he  felt  that 
he  had  a  special  mission.  When  he  had  been  in  Tarsus 
before,  he  would  hardly  have  been  free  to  interest 
himself  in  Gentile  affairs.     Now  his  family  have  probably 


8  Gal  i.  2  2.     See    p.    64. 

8  See  ch.  IV.,  p.  46. 

10  Gal.  i.  21. 

^  GaL  i.  22  ;    compare  Acts  ix.  30. 


Paul's  further  preparation  67 

disowned  him.i^  At  any  rate  he  is  now  a  man  grown  and 
must  choose  his  own  Ufe.  Although  we  know  nothing 
about  what  Paul  did  in  Tarsus  it  will  be  of  interest  to 
look  at  the  city  of  that  time,  and  see  what  might  have 
interested  him,  and  prepared  him  for  his  later  work. 
With  what  new  e^^es  Paul  would  look  upon  the  Tarsus 
he  had  known  as  a  boy.^^  A  period  away  from  home, 
especially  a  period  of  study,  always  makes  everything 
look  different  upon  one's  return.  But  to  this  was  added 
in  Paul's  case  the  revolution  which  had  taken  place 
within  him  which  gave  him  a  mission  to  carry  out  among 
these  Gentiles.  How  was  such  a  task  to  be  begun  ? 
Must  not  Paul  have  looked  with  keen  interest  upon  the 
Gentile  life  about  him  for  an  answer  to  this  question  ? 
Now  Tarsus  was  a  great  university  centre.  Strabo 
says  of  it  :  "  Such  an  enthusiasm  for  philosophy  and  all 
the  other  parts  of  a  liberal  education,  has  been  de- 
veloped in  the  people  of  this  city,  that  they  have  sur- 
passed Athens  and  Alexandria,  and  all  other  places 
one  might  mention  as  seats  of  learning  and  philosophical 
study.  .  .They  have  schools  for  all  branches  of  literary 
culture."!'*  While  Paul  probably  worked  at  his  tent- 
making  trade  to  support  himself,  with  his  new  interest 
in  the  Gentiles  he  can  hardly  have  failed  to  be  interested 
in  the  philosophers  who  were  lecturing  in  the  city, 
probably  in  public  places. ^^  We  know  from  Strabo,  too, 
for  what  type  of  thought  the  Tarsus  university  stood. 
It  had  long  been   a  centre  of  the  Stoic  philosophy. 

^2  He  may  be  thinking  of  this  when  he  says,  speaking  of 
Christ,  "for  whom  I  suffered  the  loss  of  all  things,  and  do  count 
them  but  refuse,"  Phil.  iii.  8.  And  the  words,  "  Fathers,  provoke 
not  your  children,  lest  they  lose  heart"  (Col.  iii.  21)  refers 
perhaps  to  an  experience  of  Paul's,  compare  Eph.  vi.  4. 

^^  Of  course  there  is  no  reason  why  Paul  may  not  have  been 
back  to  Tarsus  since  he  left  as  a  boy,  but  we  have  no  account  of 
such  a  journey,  and  he  seems  to  have  reached  a  place  of  power  in 
Jerusalem  which  indicates  that  he  had  settled  there. 

^*  Strabo  XIV.,  v.  13.  Translation  from  Walden's  "  Uni- 
versities of  Ancient  Greece." 

^^  In  Athens  the  philosophers  could  be  heard  in  the  market- 
nlpce — no  doubt  here  also. 


68  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

Loiif,'  af<()  llicrc  liad  been  "  riirysij)))iis,^^  tlic  Stoic 
philosopher,  the  son  of  an  inliabitant  of  Tarsus,  who  left 
it  to  live  at  Soli."i7  He  is  said  to  have  written  705 
hooks  in  whi('h  he  elaborately  worked  out  the  Stoic 
philosophy  ;  of  him  it  was  said  that  "  if  there  were  such 
a  science  as  dialectics  among  the  gods,  it  would  be  in  no 
respect  different  from  that  of  Chrysippus."^^  He  had 
as  a  pupil  ('leanthes  of  Assos,  to  the  east  of  Tarsus,  who 
went  to  Athens  as  a  j)oor  student,  and  "  used  to  draw 
water  in  the  gardens  by  night,  and  by  day  he  used  to 
exercise  himself  in  ])hiloso])hical  discussions."  When 
asked  once  why  he  drew  water  he  replied,  "  Do  I  do 
nothing  beyond  drawing  water  ?  Do  I  not  also  dig, 
and  do  I  not  water  the  land,  and  do  all  sorts  of  things 
for  the  sake  of  j)hiloso})hy  ?  "^'-^  Finally,  he  became  the 
leader  of  the  Stoic  school  after  Chrysippus.  These 
men  lived  over  two  hundred  years  before  Paul,  but  the 
stories  about  their  lives  and  their  teachings  were  kept 
alive  by  the  lecturers  in  the  universities,  and  Paul  could 
easily  hear  them  in  Tarsus.  Would  not  Paul,  the  tent- 
maker,  be  interested  in  this  Clcanthes  who  had  worked 
"  night  and  day  "20  [qj-  f_\^^.  5^^]^^  ^f  \^\^  philosophy  ? 
Other  early  Stoic  philoso])hcrs  of  Tarsus  were  Antipater, 
Archcdemus  and  Nestor,  though  they  taught  chiefly  in 
Athens."'  Shortly  before  the  time  of  Paul  a  Stoic  philo- 
sopher showed  his  skill  in  politics.  The  city  government 
of  Tarsus  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  "  Boethus,  a  bad 
poet  and  a  bad  citizen."  He  had  been  entrusted  by 
Antony  with  the  building  of  a  gymnasium  in  Tarsus, 

^«  Strabo  XIV.,  v.  8. 

*'  On  the  coast,  just  to  the  soutli  west  of  Tarsus,  such  bad  Greek 
was  .spoken  at  Soli  tliat  it  gave  rise  to  the  word  "  solecism." 

"  Diogenes  Laertes,  "  Lives  of  the  Philosophers,"  Bk.  VII- 
"Chrysippu.s."     Death  of  Chrysippus,  208  B.C. 

'»  Diog-Laertas,  Bk.  VII.  "Clcanthes."  Deal h  of  Clcantlics, 
232  B.C.  When  Clcanthes  heard  tlic  lectures  of  Zeno,  lie  wrote 
his  notes  on  oyster  shells  and  shoulder  blades  of  oxen,  because 
he  had  not  money  for  paper. 

^°  I  Thess.  ii.  9.  Paul's  handwork  would  not  be  offensive  to 
Greeks. 


Paul's  further  preparation  6g 

but  he  was  caught  steahng  the  supplies — even  the  oil. 
The  Stoic  philosopher  Athenodorus,  who  had  been 
teacher  and  friend  of  Augustus,  was  appointed  by 
Augustus  to  return  to  his  native  city  and  to  put  out  this 
plunderer  of  the  city's  goods.^i  Though  he  had  many 
difficulties  to  meet  and  insult  to  endure  from  the  people 
who  had  profited  by  the  rule  of  Boethus,  he  succeeded 
in  establishing  good  government.  He  seems  to  have 
had  considerable  influence  upon  people  who  came  after 
him.  At  least,  some  of  his  sayings  are  quoted  by  others. 
Seneca,  the  great  Stoic  philosopher,  contemporary  with 
Paul,22  powerful  at  the  Roman  court,  frequently  quotes 
Athenodorus.  One  of  his  quotations,  concerning  the 
duties  of  a  citizen,  speaks  of  the  careful  preparation 
which  athletes  make  for  their  contests  and  continues  : 

"  So  it  is  requisite  for  us  who  prepare  our  minds  for 
the  managing  of  civic  affairs  to  be  always  active.  For 
if  one  has  determined  to  make  himself  useful  to  his 
fellow-citizens,  yea,  to  all  men,  one  accomplishes  two 
things  at  once.  He  who  ])]ac(^s  himself  at  the  centre  of 
affairs  and  adTninis4.ers  them  according  to  his  faculties 
benefits  both  the  public  interests  and  his  own  affairs. "2=^ 
He  seems  also  to  have  had  something  to  say  about 
religion,  as  indeed  all  philosophers  had,  for  Seneca 
quotes  : 

"  Know  that  you  arc  free  from  all  passions  only  when 
you  have  reached  the  point  that  you  ask  God  for  nothing 
except  v/hat  you  can  ask  openly. "2* 

Of  course  Paul  could  never  have  heard  Athendorus, 
for  he  was  only  a  young  boy  when  Athenodorus  died,-'"' 
l)ut  it  is  impossible  that  Paul  should  have  lived  in  Tarsus 
after  his  return  from  Jerusalem,  and  not  known  about  the 

21  Strabo  XIV.,  v.  14. 
'■^^  Seneca's  dates  arc  3  b. 0.-65  a.d. 
^^  Seneca,  "  Concerning  the  Peaceful  Mind,"  III. 
^*  Seneca,  "  Moral  Epistles,"  I.  loi,  5. 

^•'  Athenodorus  lived  about  74  B.c.-y  a.d.  I'aul  was  possibly 
seven  or  eight  years  old  when  he  died. 


70  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

man  who  had  purified  the  city  government,  and  lectured 
on  rehgion  and  civics. ^^ 

Of  the  people  who  may  have  been  in  Tarsus  at  the 
time  that  Paul  returned  after  his  conversions^  we  know 
a  few  through  Strabo  who  says  : 

"  Nestor,28  of  our  time,  the  tutor  of  Marcellus,  son  of 
Octavia,  the  sister  of  Caesar,  was  of  the  Academic  sect."^^ 
"  He  was  also  at  the  head  of  the  government,  having 
succeeded  Athenodorus,  and  continued  to  be  honoured 
both  by  the  Roman  governors  and  the  citizens." 

It  certainly  is  interesting  to  see  that  apparently  for 
a  number  of  years  the  head  of  the  university  was  also 
the  head  of  the  city  government  !  One.  would  like  to 
know  much  more  about  this  union  of  education  and 
politics.  It  seems  to  have  produced  good  government, 
and  a  studious  city,  for  Tarsus  is  said  to  have  differed 
from  most  university  towns  in  that  the  students  were 
all  natives. ^^ 

Strabo  further  says,  that  "  strangers  are  not  inclined 
to  resort  thither,"  to  study.  But  we  know  of  one  man 
who  came  from  Tyana  just  over  the  Taurus  mountains 
to  the  north  to  study  at  Tarsus — ^Apollonius  of  T^^ana.^^ 

^®  Ramsay,  however,  probably  goes  too  far  when  he  concludes 
that  Paul  was  deeply  influenced  by  Athendorus.  He  bases  this 
conclusion  on  certain  likenesses  between  Paul  and  Seneca,  which 
he  supposes  are  due  to  the  influence  of  Athendorus  upon  both 
men.  See  Ramsay's  "  Cities  of  St.  Paul,"  p.  212,  and  "  St. 
Paul  the  Traveller  and  Roman  Citizen,"  p.  35.  For  comparison 
of  Paul  and  Seneca,  see  Lightfoot's  "  Philippians,"  pp.  270-333. 

^'  Strabo  died  in  24  a.d.,  and  Paul  must  have  come  back  to 
Tarsus  somewhere  between  30  and  40  a.d.  So  some  of  these 
Tarsus  people  that  Strabo  knew  were  probably  living. 

^^  Strabo  XIV.,  v.  14.  There  seem  to  have  been  two  Nestors 
of  Tarsus.  The  second  one  was  head  of  the  government  in 
Tarsus  in  Strabo's  time. 

^^  It  seems  strange  that  the  Stoic  Tarsus  should  novv  have  a 
head  of  another  school.  The  Academic  School  of  Philosophy 
was  founded  by  Plato  in  the  fourth  century  b.c. 

30  Strabo  XIV.,  v.  13. 

3^  Philostratus  "Life  of  Apollonius." 


iriti^l 


Paul's  further  preparation  71 

He  is  of  special  interest  because  he  was  a  religious  leader 
of  the  first  century  as  was  Paul.  He  seems  to  have  found 
little  of  value  to  him  in  the  Tarsus  university,  but  he 
was  much  more  ascetic  than  Paul.^^ 

Some  of  the  interesting  people  who  might  be  heard  in 
Tarsus  then  are  thus  described  by  Strabo  : 

"  Among  the  other  philosophers,  '  those  whom  I 
know  and  could  in  order  name,'  were  Plutiades  and 
Diogenes,  who  went  from  city  to  city,  instituting  schools 
of  philosophy  as  the  opportunity  occurred.  Diogenes, 
as  if  inspired  by  Apollo,  composed  and  rehearsed  poems, 
chiefly  of  the  tragic  kind,  upon  any  subject  that  was 
proposed.  The  grammarians  of  Tarsus  whose  writings 
we  have  were  Artemidorus  and  Diodorus.  But  the 
best  writer  of  tragedy     .     .     was  Dionysides."^^ 

It  is,  perhaps,  a  doubtful  accomplishment  to  be  able  to 
produce  tragic  poetry  on  demand,  but  the  account  indi- 
cates that  there  was  considerable  intellectual  life  in  Tarsus. 
Furthermore,  these  travelling  philosophers  show  how 
natural  was  Paul's  later  travelling  ministry.  All  over 
this  Graeco-Roman  world,  people  with  schools  of  philo- 
sophy to  found,  or  messages  of  various  sorts  to  give, 

^2  Gildersleeve  writes  as  follows  of  Apollonius  at  Tarsus  : 
"When  the  lad  outgrew  his  Cappadocian  teachers,  he  was  sent 
by  his  father  to  college  at  Tarsus  in  Cilicia,  where  he  may 
possibly  have  seen  a  Jewish  young  gentleman  of  that  city,  Saul 
by  namfe,  and  have  watched  with  him  the  people  of  Tarsus 
sitting  on  the  banks  of  the  cool  Cydnus — '  like  so  many  water- 
fowl,' says  Apollonius.  Against  this  aquatic  dissipation 
Apollonius  set  his  face  like  a  flint  and  sternly  bade  the  men  of 
Tarsus  forswear  their  potations,  or,  to  use  his  own  language, 
'  cease  from  getting  drank  on  water.'  Disgusted  for  this  reason 
and  various  others  with  Tarsus,  he  withdrew  to  Aegae,  a 
neighbouring  town,  and  there  gave  himself  up  to  the  study 
of  the  doctrines  of  Pythagoras,  abstained  from  animal  food 
and  wine,  left  off  his  shoes,  wore  garments  of  linen  only,  and 
suffered  his  hair  to  grow." — "  Essays  and  Studies."  Basil  L, 
Gildersleeve. 

'^  Strabo  XIV.,  v.  14,  says  that  it  was  "  very  general  among  the 
inhabitants  of  Tarsus"  to  possess  the  facility  of  "discoursing  at 
great  length,  and  without  preparation  upon  any  given  subject." 


72  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

travelled  about  almost  like  the  old  Hebrew  prophets, 
speaking  wherever  opportunity  offered.  The  Tarsians 
seem,  indeed,  to  have  been  especially  frequent  travellers.^* 
Strabo  says,  **  Even  the  natives  themselves  do  not  re- 
main, but  travel  abroad  to  complete  their  studies,  and 
having  completed  them,  reside  in  foreign  countries.  Few 
of  them  return,"  and,  "  Rome  is  best  able  to  inform  us 
what  number  of  learned  men  this  city  has  produced, 
for  it  is  filled  with  persons  from  Tarsus  and  Alexandria. "^^ 
Tarsus  seemed  to  produce  world  citizens  rather  than 
those  of  onl}/  provincial  interest. 

But  what  of  the  mass  of  people  who  did  the  manual 
work,    and   kept   the   cit}^   prosperous   commercially  ? 

^*  We  know  the  name  of  a  grammarian  of  Tarsus  who  liv^ed 
about  twenty  years  after  Paul,  and  who  visited  Britain  !  It  is 
Plutarch  who  tells  about  this  Tarsian  thus  : 

"  Shortly  before  the  Pythian  games  .  .  .  there  happened 
to  be  two  holy  men  met  together  from  the  opposite  limits  of  the 
world  at  Delphi,  visiting  me.  They  were  Demetrius,  the 
grammarian  returning  home  to  Tarsus  out  of  Britain,  and 
Cleombrotus,  the  Lacedemonian,  after  long  wandering  in 
Egypt,"  etc.  (See  Plutarch's  "  Morals,"  translation  by 
A.  W.  King,  p.  73.)  There  is  now  in  the  museum  at  York  a 
bronze  tablet  originally  coated  with  silver,  inscribed  with  the 
following  in  Greek  : 

"  To  the  gods  of  the  consular  pretorium,  Demetrius." 
Was  he,  then,  a  government  official  in  old  Eboracum  ?  Plutarch 
calls  Demetrius  a  holy  man  and  tells  how  he  went  for  the  purpose 
of  investigation  to  one  of  the  islands  near  by  which  was  inhabited 
by  "  religious  men,  held  sacred  by  the  Britons  "  (p.  93,  King). 
This  is,  no  doubt,  a  reference  to  the  Druids.  Another  tablet 
at  York  shows  this  same  interest  in  religion.     It  reads  : 

"  To  Oceanus  and  to  Tethys,  Demetrius." 
Thus  he  pays  tribute  to  the  god  and  goddess  of  the  ocean. 
Ancient  peoples  seem  to  have  thought  of  Britons  as  "  those  who 
live  in  the  middle  of  the  ocean  "  (King,  p.  200),  and  no  doubt, 
Demetrius  thought  that  the  most  appropriate  gods  to  set  up 
tablets  to  in  York  were  the  Ocean  deities.  How  little  he  dreamed 
that  a  native  of  his  own  town  had  recently  completed  a  life-work 
that  would  entirely  change  the  religion  of  these  Britons,  and, 
indeed,  of  the  whole  Roman  Empire,  to  which  both  Tarsus  and 
Britain  belonged ! 

35  Strabo  XIV.,  v.  13,  14. 


Paul's  further  preparation  73 

At  the  bottom  of  society  were  the  slaves  and  the  workers, 
many  of  whom  were  not  citizens.  One  writer  calls  them 
"  linen- workers  "^^  ;  Paul,  we  know,  was  both  a  cloth- 
worker  and  a  citizen.  The  religion  of  many  of  these 
people  was  probably  a  mixture  of  the  superstitions 
belonging  to  the  old  religion  of  the  country,  and  of  the 
crude  materialism  represented  by  a  tomb  to  the  south  of 
Tarsus  which  has  the  inscription,  "  Eat,  drink,  be  merry ; 
everything  else  is  not  worth  that " — the  person  is  repre- 
sented as  snapping  his  fingers. ^7  At  the  bottom  this,  at 
the  top  the  lofty  morality  of  the  philosophers  and  the 
rigid  monotheism  of  the  Jews.  In  all  this  variety  of 
life  Paul  remains  a  disciple  of  Jesus,  perhaps  the  only 
one  in  the  city.  Vv'hy  does  he  ?  Certainly  not  because 
life  about  him  is  poor  and  uninteresting.  It  must 
be  because  he  has  an  inner  possession  which  he  knows 
to  be  better  than  the  solutions  of  life  about  which  the 
philosophers  speculate,  and  the  legalism  which  the 
Jewish  communit}^  offers,  as  well  as  the  hopelessness  of 
the  materialism  and  superstition  of  the  masses. 

But  if  Paul  remained  a  disciple  of  Jesus  in  Tarsus  it  is 
hard  to  believe  that  he  remained  inactive.  Did  he  win 
any  of  his  Tarsus  friends  P^^  Whether  he  did  or  not  these 
years  must  have  been  worth  much  in  the  knowledge  of 
the  Gentile  world  which  they  gave  Paul,  and  he  later 
says, 

"I  am  debtor  both  to  the  Greeks  and  to  the 
Barbarians,  both  to  the  v/ise  and  to  the  foolish. "^^ 

But  it  is  probable  that  he  was  preaching  wherever  he 
could  find  opportunity,  for  his  account   in  Galatians 

3^  Dion  Chrysom.   "  Orat  33,"   "  To  the  Tarsians." 

^'  This  was  called  the  tomb  of  Sardanapolis  the  King. 
Aristotle  said,  "  What  better  inscription  could  3^ou  have  for 
the  tomb  not  of  a  King,  but  of  an  ox?  "  Cicero  Tusc.  III.,  35. 
Compare  i  Cor.  xv.  32. 

38  Ramsay,  "  Cities  of  St.  Paul,"  p.  178,  thinks  that  the 
"  kinsmen  "  mentioned  in  Rom.  xvi.  7,  11,  21,  were  citizens  of 
Tarsus,  but  they  may  have  been  simply  Jews. 

^^  Rom.  i.  14. 


74  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

says  that  after  he  had  come  into  the  regions  of  Syria 
and  Cihcia-^o  the  disciples  of  Judaea  "  heard  say  "  : 

"  He  that  once  persecuted  us  nowpreacheth  the  faith 
of  which  he  once  made  havoc." 

Perhaps  Paul's  work  in  Syria  and  Cilicia  was  not  very 
successful,  but  no  doubt  the  knowledge  and  experience 
was  gained  which  enabled  him  later  to  make  wonderfully 
effective  his  apostleship  to  the  Gentiles. 


*°  GaL  i.  21-24.  As  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  impossible  to  tell 
certainly  from  these  verses  whether  this  report  which  reached 
the  Judaeans  was  based  on  work  which  Paul  did  in  Syria  and 
Cilicia,  or  on  what  he  had  done  before  in  Damascus.  Churches 
of  Syria  and  Cilicia  are  mentioned  in  Acts  xv.  41,  but  that  is  all 
we  know  about  them. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  GOSPEL  TAKEN  TO  GENTILE  GALATIA 

"  Antioch  is  the  metropolis  of  Syria. "i  It  is  situated 
on  the  Orentes  river  sixteen  miles  from  the  sea.  Herod 
the  Great,  King  of  Judaea,  had  beautified  the  two-mile- 
long  main  street  of  the  city.  "  He  built  cloisters  along 
its  sides,  and  laid  the  open  road  with  polished  stone."^ 
Above  the  city,  says  Strabo,  is  the  grove  of  Daphne 
"  with  a  thick  covert  of  shade  and  springs  of  water 
flowing  through  it.  In  the  midst  of  the  forest  is  a  sacred 
grove,  which  is  a  sanctuary  and  a  temple  of  Apollo  and 
Diana.  It  is  the  custom  of  the  inhabitants  of  Antioch 
and  the  neighbouring  people  to  assemble  here  to  cele- 
brate public  festivals. "3  But  this  Greek  cit}^  partly 
because  of  its  nearness  to  Jewish  lands,  had  long  num- 
bered many  Jews  among  its  inhabitants  and  they  had 
been  given  "  privileges  equal  to  those  of  the  Macedonians 
and  Greeks  .  .  .  insomuch  that  those  privileges 
continue  to  this  very  day."*  They  had  a  magnificent 
synagogue  and  many  Greeks  were  attracted  to  Judaism, 
and  joined  as  proselytes.  Indeed,  the  Jews  seem  to  have 
had  a  "  governor  "  of  their  ov/n  people.^ 

1  strabo  XVI.,  2^. 

2  Jos.  "  Ant.,"  XVI.,  V.  3  ;    "  Wars,"  I.,  xxi.  11. 

3  Strabo  XVI.,  ii.  6. 

*  Jos.  "  Ant.,"  XII.,  iii.  i. 

^  Jos.  "  Wars,"  VII.,  iii.  3.  "  They  both  multiplied  to  a  great 
number  and  adorned  their  temple  gloriously  by  fine  ornaments, 
and  with  great  magnificence.  .  .  .  They  also  made 
proselytes  of  a  great  many  of  the  Greeks  perpetually,  and  thereby 
after  a  sort  brought  them  to  be  a  portion  of  their  own  body." 
A  certain  Antiochus  is  mentioned  w  ho  "  w^as  greatly  respected 

75 


76  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

It  was  in  this  prosperous  and  luxurious  city  that  the 
name  "  Christian  "  came  into  existence.^  There  were 
some  "  men  of  Cyprus  and  Cyrene,  who,  when  they  were 
come  to  Antioch  spake  unto  the  Greeks  also  preaching 
the  Lord  Jesus."^  The  persecution  in  which  Paul  had 
taken  part  at  the  time  of  Stephen's  death  had  driven 
disciples  out  over  the  Roman  Empire.  It  seems  prob- 
able that  they  at  first  "  preached  the  Lord  Jesus  "  only 
to  Jews,  and  to  the  Gentiles  that  they  met  at  the  syna- 
gogues, who  thus  showed  some  interest  in  Jewish  ideas, 
thinking  the}^  alone  would  be  interested  in  the  ^lessiah. 
But  these  men  of  Cyprus  and  Cyrene  began  in  Antioch 
the  work  that  Paul  felt  called  to  do,  and  was  perhaps 
carrying  on  quietly  in  Syria  and  Cilicia,  that  is,  they 
preached  to  the  ordinary  Greek  populace  who  had 
nothing  to  do  with  Jews.  They  were  successful,  for  great 
numbers  of  Greeks  believed.^  "  And  the  report  concern- 
ing them  came  to  the  ears  of  the  Church  which  was  in 
Jerusalem  and  they  sent  forth  Barnabas  as  far  as  Antioch 
who  when  he  was  come  and  had  seen  the  grace  of  God 
was  glad  ;  and  he  exhorted  them  all  that  with  purpose 
of  heart  they  would  cleave  unto  the  Lord."^ 

The  work  grew  so  rapidly  that  Barnabas  needed 
help  and  he  then  remembered  the  young  man  Paul 
who  had  seen  long  ago  that  the  door  was  open  to  the 
Greeks,  and  who  was  reported  to  be  preaching  to  Greeks 
in  Syria  and  Cilicia.  Barnabas  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  in  communication  with  Paul  for  "  he  went 


on  account  of  his  father,  who  was  governor  of  the  Jews    at 

Antioch."  This  statement  is  concerning  the  time  immediately 
following  Paul's  death,  but  would  be  just  as  true  of  the  earlier 
part  of  the  century. 

^  Acts  xi.  26. 

'  Acts  xi.  20.  The  word  "  Greeks  "  is  in  some  manuscripts 
"  Grecian  Jews,"  but  it  would  not  have  been  a  new  thing  to 
preach  to  them,  for  they  formed  part  of  the  group  of  disciples 
in  Jerusalem.     Acts  vi.  i. 

^  Acts  xi.  19-21, 

^  Acts  xi.  22,  23. 


THE  GOSPEL  TAKEN  TO  GENTILE  GALATL\     77 

forth  to  Tarsus  to  seek  for  Saul  ;  and  when  he  had 
found  him  he  brought  him  unto  Antioch.^o  "And 
it  came  to  pass  that  even  for  a  whole  year  they  were 
gathered  together  with  the  church  and  taught  much 
people. "11 

The  name  Christian  clearly  shows  that  the  preaching 
was  about  Jesus,  the  Christ,  and  that  the  word  was  coined 
by  Greeks  to  designate  those  who  believed  in  this  Christ. 
So  successful  was  the  work  among  the  Greeks  in  Antioch, 
that  the  newly-gathered  disciples  felt  it  right  to  send  out 
preachers  to  other  Greeks. ^^  This,  of  course,  was  just 
what  Paul  felt  called  to  do,  and  it  was  most  natural  that 
Paul  and  Barnabas  should  be  selected  to  go.  No  doubt 
it  was  the  spirit  of  their  preaching  that  had  filled  these 
new  disciples  with  the  desire  to  send  the  good  news  to 
others.  Thus  Paul  received  confirmation  of  his  early 
call. 

Now  Barnabas'  old  home  was  in  Cyprus. ^-^  He,  like 
Paul,  had  been  brought  up  in  the  Graeco-Roman 
world  and  knew  how  to  speak  to  Greeks.  Barnabas 
seems  to  be  the  leader  on  this  "  first  missionary  journe}^" 
and  takes  Paul  and  a  young  man  he  had  known  in 
Jerusalem,!"*  John  Mark,  first  to  his  native  place,  Cyprus. 
Sailing  from  Seleucia,  the  harbour  of  Antioch,  they  arrive 
at  Salamis.15  Perhaps  the  visit  to  Cyprus  was  not 
meant  to  be  the  beginning  of  the  new  missionary  work, 
but  rather  a  visit  to  the  "  men  of  C3"prus,"  who  had 
certainly  preached  here,  and  to  the  home  of  Barnabas. 


^^  GaL  ii.  11,  gives  evidence  from  Paul's  letters  that  he  was 
working  in  Antioch  later  at  least. 

^^  Acts  xi.  25,  26. 

^^  Of  course  Paul  and  Barnabas  and  the  others  must  have  been 
speaking  Greek,  since  it  is  the  Greek  word,  Christ,  equivalent  to 
Messiah,  which  gives  the  name  to  the  group.  The  name  must 
have  originated  among  the  Greeks  of  Antioch,  for  the  Jews 
w^ould  not  have  so  used  such  a  sacred  name  as  Messiah,  that  is, 
Christ. 

^^  Acts  iv.   26. 

^*  Acts  xii.  25.  15  Acts  xiii.  4,  5. 


yS  THI-     LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

The}'  seem  to  have  preached  to  Jews  only ;  Sergius  Paulus 
sent  to  liear  Barnabas  and  Saul  just  as  he  would  have 
invited  some  Greek  philosophers  if  they  had  appeared 
in  the  island  ;  there  is  a  dramatic  scene  between  a 
magician  and  Paul  which  caused  Sergius  Paulus  to 
"  believe,"!^  but  whether  he  actually  joined  with  the 
Christians  of  the  island  we  have  no  information. 

The  new  territory  conquered  in  this  tour  was  entered 
when  they  "  set  sail  from  Paphos  and  came  to  Perga 
in  Pamphylia,"  where  no  one  had  yet  preached  the 
Gospel.  Here  John  Mark  seems  to  have  left  them.  No 
reason  is  given,  but  Paul  later  considers  it  desertion  of 
the  work.  17  It  was  no  easy  enterprise  they  were  starting 
on  now  and  Mark  probabl}^  grew  faint-hearted.  This 
wild,  rugged  portion  of  Asia  Minor  had  never  yielded 
completely  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  ;  many  of  the 
old  inhabitants  had  taken  to  the  mountains  and  lived 
by  robbery.  Amyntas,  who  had  made  himself  King 
of  Pisidia,  Lycaonia  and  Galatia,  killed  one  of  the 
robber  chiefs  and  was  in  turn  killed  in  a  raid.^^  Some 
of  the  people  lived  "  among  the  overhanging  heights 
of  the  mountains  or  in  caves."  They  were  "  for  the  most 
part  armed  and  accustomed  to  make  incursions  into  the 
country  of  other  tribes. "i^  xhe  rivers  were  not  bridged 
nor  the  roads  well-cared  for  and  Paul  may  have  been 
thinking  of  experiences  in  this  region  when  he  after- 
wards wrote,  "  in  journeyings  often,  in  perils  of  rivers, 

^^  Acts  xiii.  6-12.  An  inscription  has  been  found  in  North 
Cyprus,  dated,  "In  the  proconsulship  of  Paulus."  Some  think 
Paul  took  his  Greek  name  here,  but  residents  of  Greek  and 
Roman  cities  always  had  two  names. 

"  Acts  xiii.  13  ;   xv.  37-40. 

^^  "In  eastern  Lycia  stands  a  considerable  temple-shaped 
tomb  certainly  not  older  than  the  third  century,  after  Christ, 
on  which  mutilated  parts  of  men — heads,  arms,  legs — are  produced 
in  relief,  as  emblems,  we  might  imagine  as  the  coat-of-arms  of 
a  civilized  robber  chief." — Mommsen's  "  Provinces  of  the  Roman 
Empire,"  p.  23S,  note. 

i»  Strabo,  XII.,  vi.  3-5. 


THE  GOSPEL  TAKEN  TO  GENTILE  GALATLA.      79 

in  perils  of  robbers,     ...     in  perils  from  the  Gentiles, 
.     .     .     in  perils  in  the  wilderness. "^o 

Through  whatever  perils  they  may  have  passed, 
Paul  and  Barnabas  arrive  finally  at  Antioch  in  Pisidia. 
Now  it  is  certain  that  this  little  region  of  Pisidia  had 
been  included  in  the  large  Province  of  Galatia  which 
the  Romans  had  organized  following  the  boundaries  of 
the  Kingdom  of  Am3^ntas.2i  In  coming  into  the  city  of 
Antioch,  therefore,  Paul  and  B?trnabas  came  into  Galatia. 
We  have,  of  course,  a  letter  of  Paul's  to  the  Galations. 
Was  it  written  to  these  people  ?  That  depends,  first,  on 
whether  Paul  was  using  the  name  of  this  Roman  province 
or  the  name  of  the  old  country  of  the  Gauls,  that  is, 
Galatia,  to  the  north,  whose  capital  was  Ancyra. 
But  in  his  letters  Paul  uses  only  the  names  of  the 
Roman  provinces,  never  the  old  race-names,  such  as 
Pisidia,  Lycaonia,  etc.,  although  Luke  uses  race-names 
in  Acts.  Second,  it  depends  upon  whether  we  have  any 
evidence  that  Paul  founded  churches  in  Anc3Ta  or 
Pessinus  or  anywhere  else  in  the  old  Galatia,  and  there 
is  no  evidence  from  any  source  of  churches  in  that 
region.  To  show  that  Paul  was  ever  in  the  old  Galatia 
there  are  only  the  two  statements  b}^  Luke,  that  Paul 
and  Silas  later  went  through  "  the  region  of  Phrygia 
and  Galatia,"  but  it  is  probable  that  this  does  not  mean 
that  they  went  into  the  old  Galatia,  but  rather  through 
the  part  of  Galatia  which  once  was  Phrygia. 22  More- 
over, Silas  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Galatian  letter, 
but  Barnabas  is  referred  to  as  well  known. ^^  It  seems 
probable,  theiefore,  that  Paul  and  Barnabas  are  now 
approaching  the  first  of  those  cities  which  he  afterwards 

2"  2  Cor.  xi.  26. 

^^  This  Roman  province  was  organized  in  25  B.C.,  and  no  change 
had  been  made  by  Paul's  time.  Strabo  says  :  "  At  present  they 
(the  mountain  tribes  of  the  Pisidians)  are  altogether  subject  to 
the  Romans  and  are  included  in  what  was  formerly  the  Kingdom 
of  Amyntas." — Strabo,  XII.,  vii.  3. 

22  Acts  xvi.  6  ;    xviii.  22,  23.     For  fuller  discussion  of  these 
passages  see  ch.  XI.,  pp.  108,  109. 
^  Gal.  ii.  I,  9.  13, 


80  THE    LIFE    AND    MIXISTRY   OF    PAUL 

addressed  as  Galatian.  Indeed,  the  only  name  that 
would  apply  to  Antioch,  Iconium,  Lj^sta  and  Dcrbe  is 
"  Galatians,"  for  it  was  only  the  power  of  the  Roman 
Empire  that  had  brought  any  unit}'  between  these 
various  peoples  and  Rome  had  named  them  Galatians.^* 

If  Paul  wrote  to  these  Galatians,  then,  let  us  look  and 
see  if  we  can  find  in  his  letter  any  information  about  this 
first  visit.  We  find  that  he  speaks  definitely  of  his  first 
visit  thus  : 

"  Ye  know  that  because  of  an  infirmity  of  the  flesh  I 
preached  the  Gospel  unto  \^ou  the  first  time  ;  and  that 
which  was  a  temptation  to  you  in  my  flesh  ye  despised 
not,  nor  rejected  ;  but  ye  received  me  as  an  angel  of 
God,  even  as  Christ  Jesus.  .  .  I  bear  you  witness 
that,  if  possible,  ye  would  have  plucked  out  3'our 
eyes  and  given  them  to  me. "25 

This  makes  it  quite  clear  that  Paul  went  to  Antioch 
because  of  an  infirmity  of  some  kind.-^    He  left  the  low- 

^  The  view  here  adopted  is  that  generally  known  as  the 
"  South  Galatian  theory."  Those  who  hold  the  "  North  Galatian 
theory  "  base  their  arguments  chiefly  on  Acts  xvi.  6  and  xviii.  23. 
INIany  other  elements  enter  into  a  full  discussion  of  the  problem, 
some  of  which  will  be  mentioned  later.  For  fuller  discussion  of 
details  see  Ramsay's  "  Commentary  on  Galatians,"  McGiffert's 
"  Apostolic  Age,"  p.  i/Sff,  etc.,  etc.  For  Xorth  Galatian  theory 
see  both  Jiilicher's  and  Moffat's  "  Introduction  to  New  Testa- 
ment Literature,"  etc.,  etc. 

2°  Gal.  iv.  13-15.  It  is  not  certain  whether  verse  15  should 
read  "  I  preached  the  Gospel  unto  you  the  first  time,"  or 
"  formerly,"  but  in  either  case  he  refers  to  his  first  preaching  to 
the  Galatians. 

2^  There  has  been  much  speculation  as  to  what  Paul's  illness 
was.  Does  the  reference  to  their  giving  their  eyes  for  him  mean 
that  it  was  an  eye  trouble  ?  Does  his  going  from  low  land  to 
high  land  indicate  that  it  was  malaria,  v,ith  its  accompanying 
headaches  ?  Or  was  it,  possibly,  epileps}',  wdiich  v.ould  give  a 
"  temptation  "  to  the  people  to  think  him  a  man  possessed  by  a 
demon  rather  than  a  messenger  of  God  ?  Is  this  the  "  thorn  in 
his  flesh,"  referred  to  in  2  Cor.  xii.  7  ?  There  is  noway  to  know. 
But  this  reference  to  an  infirmity  fits  very  well  with  the  Acts 
account,  which  implies  that  something  unusual  made  Paul  go 
quickly  from  Perga  to  Antioch  without  stopping  to  preach.  It  is 
therefore  one  of  the  evidences  of  the  "  South  Galatian  theory." 


I 


THE  GOSPEL  TAKEN  TO  GENTILE  GALATIA  8l 

lying  lands  of  Perga,  and  went  to  the  mountainous 
region  of  Antioch.  Perhaps  Mark  thought  Paul  was 
foolish  to  start  for  Antioch  when  he  was  ill,  and  therefore 
would  not  accompany  him.  The  "  infirmity  "  was  some- 
thing which  might  have  tempted  the  GaJatians  to  despise 
Paul,  but  instead  the}-  received  him  as  an  angel  of  God, 
and  would  have  been  glad  to  have  given  their  eyes  to 
him.  But  apparently  no  "  perils  "  nor  any  "  infirmity  " 
could  stop  Paul,  and  it  is  no  wonder  that  the  Galatians 
received  him  "  as  an  angel  of  God  "  if  they  caught  any 
glimpse  of  his  indomutable  spirit. 

Luke  reports  that  this  work  in  Pisidian  Antioch  con- 
sisted of  sermons  in  the  Jewish  synagogue^?  to  the 
"  men  of  Israel  "  and  "  those  who  fear  God,"  and  then 
tells  of  his  rejection  by  the  Jews  and  the  turning  of  Paul 
to  the  Gentiles. 28  Finally,  driven  out  of  Antioch  by  the 
Jews  they  flee  to  Iconium,  and  after  much  the  same 
experience  and  danger  of  stoning,  find  themselves  in 
Lystra.2^  Here  Paul  heals  a  cripple.  Paul  himself 
speaks  of  "  miracles"  in  Galatia  and  of  himself  as  a 
miracle  worker. ^*^  The  healing  of  this  man  aroused  the 
people  of  Lystra  to  such  a  pitch  of  excitement  that  they 
cried  in  their  native  Lycaonian  speech  "  The  gods  are 
come  down  to  us !  "  They  took  Barnabas  for  Jupiter,  the 
father  of  the  gods,  and  Paul  for  Mercur};,  the  messenger  of 

2''  Ramsay  has  found  at  ApoUonia  near  b}',  an  inscription 
which  reads  :  "  An  Antiochian  (by  race)  sprung  from  ancestors 
who  held  many  offices  of  state  in  the  fatherland,  by  name 
Debbora,  given  in  marriage  to  a  famous  man,  Pamphylus 
(I  am  buried  here)  receiving  this  monument  as  a  return  of 
gratitude  from  him  for  my  virgin  marriage."  This  was  perhaps 
a  Jewess  from  Antioch.     Ramsay,  "  Cities  of  St.  Paul."  p.  256. 

2^  Acts  xiii.  14-48.  There  is  no  way  to  tell  which  part  of  the 
sermon  reported  by  Luke  contains  the  actual  words  of  Paul, 
and  which  part  is  Luke's.  We  will,  therefore,  confine  ourselves 
to  Paul's  letters  for  his  thought. 

^^  Acts  xiii.  49-xiv.  7. 

^^  Gal.  iii.  5  ;  2  Cor.  xii.  12.  The  names  of  the  gods  which  the 
Lycaonians]  applied  to  Paul  and  Barnabas  indicate  probably 
that  Paul  was  smaller  than  Barnabas. 


82  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF   PAUL 

the  gods. 31  Since  Paul  and  Barnabas  did  not  understand 
the  Lycaonian  speech  they  may  not  have  known  what 
the  people  were  saying  until  the  priest  of  Jupiter  actually 
appeared  with  oxen  and  garlands  to  sacrifice  to  them. 
But  every  fibre  of  their  being  rebelled  against  this  blas- 
phemy in  token  of  which  they  "  rent  their  garments  and 
sprang  forth  among  the  multitude,"  protesting  with  all 
their  power,  saying  that  they  were  not  gods  but  pro- 
claiming to  them  the  One  God  who  "  made  the  heavens 
and  the  earth "  and  gave  the  "  rains  and  fruitful 
seasons. "32  The  Lystra  work  seems  to  have  been  ended 
by  Jews  who  stoned  Paul  and  left  him  for  dead.  Prob- 
ably he  refers  to  this  in  his  list  of  perils  when  he  sa\'s, 
"  Once  was  I  stoned."33 

Going  still  farther  south  to  Derbe  and  making 
many  disciples  there,   they   then   returned,   revisiting 

'^  There  is  a  second  century  description  of  Paul  which  is 
interesting  in  connection  with  this  experience  in  Lystra. 

"  And  he  saw  Paul  coming,  a  man  small  in  size,  bald-headed, 
bandy-legged,  well-built  (or  healthy),  with  eye-brows  meeting, 
rather  long-nosed,  full  of  grace.  For  sometimes  he  seemed  like 
a  man,  and  sometimes  he  had  the  countenance  of  an  angel." 
"  Acts  of  Paul  and  Thekla,"  III. 

The  earliest  known  picture  of  Paul,  as  also  of  Peter,  is 
possibly  second  century.  It  is  published  in  W.  Lowrie's 
"  Ancient  Christian  Monuments,"  p.  251.  Mr.  Lowrie  thinks 
there  is  "  the  possibility  that  they  originated  in  veritable 
portraits."  The  original  is  a  bronze  medal  strongly  drawn  and 
of  excellent  workmanship,  representing  the  two  heads  of  Peter 
and  Paul.  Paul  is  represented  with  a  high  forehead,  a  bald  head, 
straight  nose,  no  moustache  but  heavy  beard,.  Peter  is  of 
quite  a  different  type.  The  medal  may  be  seen  in  the  Christian 
museum  at  the  Vatican,  Rome.  It  was  found  in  the  Catacomb 
of  Domitilla,  near  the  Appian  Way. 

^2  Acts  xiv.  8-18.  It  is  worth  noting  that  the  speech  before 
these  Lycaonians  is  utterly  different  from  the  speeches  before  the 
Jews.  It  shows  that  Luke  knew  that  Paul  was  in  the  habit  of 
adapting  his  words  to  the  people  to  whom  he  was  speaking. 
Probably  whoever  told  Luke  about  this  occurence  told  I  im  the 
character  of  the  speech,  but  note  that  you  cannot  tell  whether 
it  was  Barnabas  or  Paul  who  spoke. 

^^  2  Cor.  xi.  25;   Acts  xiv.  19,  20. 


THE  GOSPEL  TAKEN  TO  GENTILE  GALATLA.     83 

these  new  disciples  among  the  Galatians.^^  Going 
down  to  Pamphylia  again,  they  stopped  and  preached, 
since  they  had  passed  it  by  before  on  account  of 
Paul's  "  infirmity."  Then  taking  ship  at  Attalia 
they  sailed  for  Antioch,  thus  completing  their  first 
journey. ^5  What  had  the}^  accomplished  ?  What  did 
Paul  and  Barnabas  report  to  that  group  of  disciples 
that  had  sent  them  out  ?  They  reported  success  among 
the  Gentiles.  Paul's  later  Galatian  letter  gives  indica- 
tions of  what  had  taken  place  in  Galatia.  These  ancient 
Lycaonians  and  Pisidians  who  had  changed  the  names 
but  not  the  character  of  their  gods  when  the  Greek  and 
Roman  conquerors  came  along,  had  been  glad  to  escape 
from  the  "  bondage  to  them  which  by  nature  are  no  gods" 
and  to  "  come  to  know  God."^'^  Before  their  eyes,  "Jesus 
Christ  was  openly  set  forth  crucified,"  and  they  received 
the  spirit  "  by  the  hearing  of  faith.  "^^  It  was  especially  a 
spiritual  Gospel  that  had  been  set  before  them  for  they 
had  "  begun  in  the  spirit "  ;^^  they  had  been  shown  that 
Christ's  death  had  ended  ceremonial  and  legal  religion 
and  secured  freedom  for  all,  that  is,  freedom  to  live 
a  high  type  of  life,  freedom  "  to  waJk  by  the  Spirit  ?  "^^ 

Paul,  then,  had  come  back  feeling  sure  that  the  Gospel 
must  be  kept  free  to  the  Gentiles,  and,  no  doubt,  the 
Gentile  church  "in  Antioch  agreed  with  him,  for  they 
themselves  had  come  into  the  Christian  fellowship 
without  keeping  the  Jewish  law.  But  suddenly  all  was 
thrown  into  perplexity  by  some  men  who  arrived  from 
Judea^o  and  taught  saying,  "Except  ye  be  circumcised 
after  the  custom  of  Moses,  ye  cannot  be  saved. "*^ 

^*  The  statement  that  they  appointed  elders  can  scarcely  be 
correct,  since  there  is  no  evidence  in  Paul's  letters  that  he  ever 
appointed  officers.  Bishops  and  deacons  are  mentioned  in 
perhaps  his  latest  letter,  Philippians  (i.  i). 

^^  Acts  xiv.  20-28.  ^^  Gal.  iv.   8,  9. 

^'^  Gal.  iii.   i,   2.  ^*  Gal  iii.   3. 

^^  Gal.  iii.  11-14;    v.  11  ;    v.  i  ;    v.  16-18. 

*°  The  disciples  in  Jerusalem  had  kept  the  Law  and  worshipped 
at    the   Temple.     There   had    been    no    break   with    Judaism. 
Acts.  ii.  46  ;    iii.  i  ;  etc. 

*^  Acts  XV.   I. 


84  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

Now  the  relation  of  the  Law  to  Gentiles  was,  at  this 
time,  a  burning  question,  for,  in  spite  of  the  hatred  of 
the  Jews  which  many  Greeks  professed,  many  of  them 
had  been  attracted  to  Judaism  by  its  teaching  concerning 
the  One  God.  Seneca  said,  "  The  customs  of  this  most 
accursed  race  have  prevailed  to  such  an  extent  that  they 
are  everywhere  received.  The  conquered  have  imposed 
their  laws  upon  the  conquerors. "^^  Jesus  referred  to 
Jewish  zeal  in  making  converts  when  he  said,  "  Ye  com- 
pass sea  and  land  to  make  one  proselyte. ""^^  Josephus 
speaks  thus  of  the  Jews  :  "  They  also  made  proselytes 
of  a  great  many  of  the  Greeks  perpetually,  and  thereby, 
after  a  sort,  brought  them  to  be  a  portion  of  their  own 
body."**  There  is  much  evidence  also  in  Acts  that 
Greeks  came  to  the  Jewish  s^^nagogues,  but  they  were 
not  proselytes,  that  is,  they  had  not  adopted  the  Law. 
They  were  called  "  God-fearers. "^^  Indeed,  it  was  an 
open  question  among  the  Jews  whether  these  "  God- 
fearing ones  "^^  need  keep  all  the  Law  or  only  part  of  it. 
This  is  best  illustrated  by  the  story  of  the  conversion  of 
King  Izates  of  Adiabene  over  in  the  region  of  the 
Euphrates. 

It  was  just  about  the  time  of  the  beginning  of  the 
work  of  Paul*"^  that  "  a  certain  Jewish  merchant  named 
Ananias  "  taught  some  women  of  the  court  "  to  worship 
God  according  to  the  Jewish  religion."  Izates,  the 
King,  became  interested  and  Helena  the  queen  mother 
was  instructed  by  another  Jew.  Izates  "  supposed  he 
could  not  be  thoroughly  a  Jew  unless  he  were  circum- 
cised," but  his  mother  dissuaded  him,  and  Ananias  his 
Jewish  instructor  said  "  that  he  might  worship  God 

^2  Quoted  in  Augustine's  "  Cit}^  of  God,"  VII.  ii, 

*3  Mt.  xxiii.    15. 

*^  Jos.  "  Wars,"  \'II.,  iii.  3. 

*^  Acts  ii.   10  ;   xiii.  43  ;   xvii.  4,  etc. 

*^  For  discussion  of  proselytes  and  "  God-fearing  ones,"  see 
Schiirer,  "Hist,  of  the  Jews,"  Div.  II.,  Vol.  2,  p.  291  ff.  See 
also  Lake,  "  Earlier  Epistles  of  Paul,"  p.  ^7  ff- 

*'  Josephus  says  it  was  in  the"  Reign  of  Claudius,"  41-54,  a.d. 


THE    GOSPEL   TAKEN    TO    GENTILE    GALATIA  85 

without  being  circumcised,  even  though  he  did  resolve 
to  follow  the  Jewish  law  entirely ;  which  worship  of 
God  was  of  a  superior  nature  to  circumcision."  But 
"  a  certain  other  Jew  that  came  out  of  Galilee  whose 
name  was  Eleazar  "  entering  the  palace  and  finding 
Izates  reading  the  law,  said  to  him,  "  Thou  dost  not 
consider,  O  King  !  that  thou  unjustly  breakest  the 
principal  of  those  laws,  and  art  injurious  to  God  himself. 
How  long  wilt  thou  continue  uncircumcised  ?  "  This 
decided  Izates,  and  he  became  a  full  Jew  despite  the 
danger  that  his  subjects  might  refuse  to  be  ruled  by 
a  Jew.  But  God  prospered  him  ever  after,  and  his  whole 
household  embraced  the  Jewish  faith. ^^ 

This  story  shows  that  Judaism  was  ready  for  the 
development  offered  it  by  Christ  and  Paul,  because  it 
was  reaching  out  toward  a  wider  and  fuller  expression  of 
its  one  great  possession,  the  knowledge  of  the  One  God  ; 
it  shows,  too,  how  Judaism  lost  her  one  great  chance 
b}^  clinging  to  the  unimportant  part  of  her  possession. 
For  while  there  were  some  who  said  that  the  worship  of 
the  One  God  did  not  make  all  the  Jewish  ceremonies 
necessary  most  of  the  converts  were  compelled  to  comply 
with  them.  There  are  some  of  the  Christians  also  who 
do  not  see  that  the  Jewish  ceremonial  is  compara- 
tively unimportant.  Thus  Paul  and  the  Christians  at 
Antioch  find  themselves  faced  with  Christian  disciples 
from  Jerusalem  who  declare  that  no  one  can  be  a  true 
disciple  of  Jesus  who  will  not  keep  the  Law.  They 
want  all  Greek  Christians  to  become  Jewish  prosetytes. 
To  protest  against  this,  Paul  and  Barnabas  and  some 
others  are  sent  up  to  Jerusalem^^  by  the  Antioch  Christ- 
ians and  of  their  conference  in  Jerusalem  we  have  an 
account  by  Paul  himself  in  his  letter  to  the  Galatians. 


«8  Josephus,  "  Ant.,"  XX.,  ii.  1-4 
*®  Acts  XV,  2. 


CHAPTER  IX 

PAUL  STANDS  FOR  "  LIBERTY  "   BEFORE  THE   JERUSALEM 

APOSTLES 

"  Then  after  the  space  of  fourteen  years,  I  went 
up  again  to  Jerusalem  with  Barnabas,  taking  Titus 
also  with  me.  And  I  went  up  by  revelation  ;  and  I 
laid  before  them  the  gospel,  which  I  preach  among 
the  Gentiles,  but  privately  before  them  who  were 
of  repute,  lest  by  any  means  I  should  be  running,  or 
had  run,  in  vain."i 

Not  since  the  da^^s  when  Paul's  life  was  transformed 
by  the  revelation  of  God's  Son  in  him  had  he  seen 
Peter  and  James. 2  Now  he  comes  up  to  Jerusalem  again 
under  the  influence  of  a  revelation,  which  shows  that  the 
"  fourteen  years  "  of  preparation  and  work  have  not 
dimmed  the  meaning  of  that  early  "  revelation  of  Jesus 
Christ."  It  is  worth  noting  too,  that  although  Paul 
is  asserting  that  his  Gospel  has  come  to  him  by  revela- 
tion and  that  he  has  come  up  to  Jerusalem  by  revelation, 
nevertheless  he  has  come  up  to  talk  with  Peter  and 
James  and  John  about  his  Gospel,  to  make  sure  that  he 

^  GaL  ii.   i,  2. 

^  This  is  practically  certain,  because  Paul,  in  Gal.  i.  and  ii., 
is  arguing  that  he  could  not  possibly  have  received  his  Gospel 
from  the  Jerusalem  Apostles.  As  part  of  his  argument  he 
recounts  his  visits  to  Jerusalem  and  it  certainly  would  have 
spoiled  his  argument  and  given  a  point  of  attack  to  his  enemies 
if  he  had  not  named  all  his  visits.  Therefore  we  can  be  quite 
sure  that  Paul  had  not  been  to  Jerusalem  for  fourteen  years, 
or,  at  least,  since  the  short  visit  after  his  conversion.  There  is 
a  possibility  that  he  means  to  count  the  fourteen  years  from 
his  conversion. 

86 


i 


PAUL    STANDS    FOR    "  LIBERTY  "  87 


is  not  running  in  vain.  This  shows  why  Paul  was 
not  a  fanatic.  Though  the  voice  of  God  within  him  was 
the  chief  determining  force  of  his  Ufe,  yet  he  did  not  dis- 
regard the  voice  of  God  to  others  and  through  others; 
furthermore,  he  carefully  considered  the  conditions  in 
which  his  revealed  Gospel  was  to  be  preached.  He 
realized  that  although  his  Gospel  was  divine,  his  labour 
in  proclaiming  it  might  all  be  "in  vain  "  unless  he 
secured  the  co-operation  of  others.  The  power 
of  these  "Pillars''  might  entirely  outweigh  the  in- 
fluence of  Paul  and  thus  destroy  his  work,  if  they 
opposed  him.  Paul  wishes,  then,  to  have  the  approval 
and  encouragement  of  Peter  and  James  so  that  he  can 
further  assure  himself  that  the  voice  within  him  is  indeed 
the  voice  of  God  and  that  the  work  to  which  he  feels 
called  will  not  be  hindered  by  others  who  are  following 
the  leading  of  God. 

This  desire  for  social  sanction  and  co-operation  is 
also  shown,  perhaps,  by  the  statement  in  Acts  that 
"  the  brethren  appointed  that  Paul  and  Barnabas  and 
certain  others  should  go  up  to  Jerusalem."^  To  be 
appointed  by  "  the  brethren  "  and  to  be  called  by 
revelation  are  not  contradictory  descriptions  to  one 
who  believes  that  God  speaks  to  others  as  well  as  to 
himself.*  Paul  may  well  have  both  felt  that  God 
had  sent  him,  and  have  desired  that  his  brethren 
appoint    him. 

The  difficulty  that  had  arisen  in  the  Antioch  church, ^ 
the  demand  by  certain  Judaeans  that  all  Gentile 
Christians  be  circumcised,  met  Paul  also  when  he  laid 
his  Gospel  before  the  Jerusalem  Apostles  for  he  says  that 

^  Acts  XV.  2  ;  xi.  30.  In  both  these  visits  the  church  sends 
PauL 

*  On  the  same  principle,  of  course,  Paul  might  have  received 
his  call  to  the  Gentiles  through  Ananias  and  still  felt  that  it 
was  direct  from  God.  Nevertheless,  he  there  says  he  did  not 
"  confer  with  flesh  and  blood."     See  p.  59, 

^  See  ch.  VIII.,  p.  52. 


88  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF     PAUL 

there  were,  "  False  brethren  .  .  .  who  came  in  privily 
to  spy  out  our  liberty'  which  we  have  in  Christ  Jesus, 
that  they  might  bring  us  into  bondage."^ 

What  liberty  ?  Certainly  the  liberty  to  take  the 
Gospel  to  the  Gentiles,  to  which  liberty  Paul  had  been 
called.  What  bondage  threatened  ?  Certainly  the 
bondage  to  the  Law  from  which  Paul  had  freed  himself 
and  proclaimed  freedom  to  the  Gentiles.  This  was 
Paul's  Gospel  to  which  he  must  be  referring  when  he 
says,  "  I  laid  before  them  the  gospel  which  I  preach 
among  the  Gentiles. "^ 

Proof  that  the  special  subject  which  Paul  laid  before 
the  "  Pillars  "  was  the  freedom  from  the  Law  is  found 
in  the  rest  of  his  account  which  shows  that  Peter's 
Gospel  and  Paul's  Gospel  were  compared  on  the  point 
of  circumcision.     Paul  defines  the  situation  by  saying  : 

"  He  that  wrought  for  Peter  unto  the  apostleship 
of  the  circumcision  wrought  for  me  also  unto  the 
Gentiles."8 

Circumcision  seems  to  have  been  a  kind  of  test 
question  on  the  necessity  of  the  keeping  of  the  Law. 
Because  Peter  keeps  the  Law  he  is  said  to  stand  for  the 
"gospel  of  the  circumcision  "  ;  because  Paul  preaches 
freedom  from  the  Law  he  is  said  to  stand  for  the  "  gospel 
of  the  uncircumcision."^  Those  who  made  the  issue 
acute  when  Paul  laid  his  Gospel  before  the  Jerusalem 
apostles  were  "  certain  false  brethren  privily  brought 


®  GaL  ii.  4.  These  "  false  brethren  "  may  possibly  be  the 
same  ones  who  had  been  in  Antioch  making  trouble,  or  they 
may  be  some  of  their  friends  in  Jerusalem.  At  least,  they  had 
the  same  concern.  Luke  says  that  certain  Pharisees  rose  up  in 
the  Jerusalem  meeting.     Acts  xv.  5. 

'  Gal.  ii.  2. 

®  Gal.  ii.  8.  It  was  through  a  revelation  that  God  "  wrought 
for  "  Paul  unto  his  Gospel.  Does  this  verse  indicate  that  it 
was  also  through  a  revelation  that  Peter's  Gospel  was 
wrought  ? 

9  Gal.  ii.  7. 


t  PAUL    STANDS    FOR    "  LIBERTY  "  89 

in."i^  Paul  had  intended  to  meet  only  those  "  who  were 
of  repute,"  but  somebody  managed  to  get  in  among  these 
Christians  who  wanted  to  deprive  Paul  of  his  "  gospel 
of  the  uncircumcision."  Now  Paul  had  brought  with 
him  a  young  Greek  Christian,  named  Titus,  probably  as 
a  sample  Gentile  Christian.  These  "  false  brethren  " 
seem  to  have  demanded  that  Titus  be  circumcised/^^ 

But  Paul  stood  up  to  his  full  height  before  the  ''  Pillars" 
and  the  "  false  brethren  "  in  support  of  the  liberty  of 
the  Gospel. 

"  We  gave  place,"  he  says,  "  in  the  way  of  subjection, 
no,  not  for  an  hour  ;  that  the  truth  of  the  Gospel  might 
continue.  "12 

And  Paul  was  not  disappointed  in  the  "  Pillars." 
They  proved  themselves  staunch  supports  of  the  truth 
of  the  Gospel.  The  false  brethren  who  came  in  "to 
spy  out  "  Paul's  liberty  did  not  gain  their  end.  Paul 
says  that  the  "  Pillars  "  "  saw  "  that  Paul  had  been 
intrusted  with  the  "  gospel  of  the  uncircumcision." 
How  did  they  see  ?  Perhaps  Paul  reminded  them  of 
his  experience  on  the  way  to  Damascus  ;  perhaps  he 
told  them  of  the  success  of  his  work  among  the  Gentiles 
and  pointed  to  Titus,  but  also  it  was  something  which 
they  "  perceived  "  in  Paul's  quality  of  life  that  persuaded 
them.  They  seem  to  have  felt  that  there  was  something 
about  him  that  indicated  that  he  was  truly  led  of  God. 
At  least,  Paul  himself  felt  that  they  recognised  that  his 
life  was  of  the  quality  that  implies  the  influence  of  God, 
and  that  therefore  they  concluded  that  his  message 
must  be  from  God,  for  he  says  : 

"  When  they  saw  that  I  had  been  intrusted  with  the 
gospel  of  the  uncircumcision  .  .  .  and  when  they 
perceived  the  grace  that  was  given  unto  me,  James  and 
Cephas  and  John,  they  who  were  reputed  to  be  pillars, 

^^  GaL  ii.  4.     Luke  says  "  There  rose  up  certain  of  the  sect 
of  the  Pharisees."     Acts  xv.  5. 
^  GaL  ii.   3. 
^  GaL  ii.  5. 


90  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

gave  to  me  the  right  hands  of  fellowship,  that  we  should 
go  unto  the  Gentiles  and  they  unto  the  circumcision. "^^ 

The  victory  was  complete  ;  the  truth  that  the  Gospel 
is  not  dependent  on  ritualistic  observance  was  main- 
tained and  Paul  triumphantly  declares  : 

"  Not  even  Titus,  who  was  with  me,  was  compelled 
to  be  circumcised."^^ 

In  this  victory  is  seen  one  of  the  finest  elements  of 
early  Christian  life — the  willingness  to  judge  each  other 
by  the  quality  of  the  inner  life,  by  the  "  grace  "  of  God 
manifested  in  the  personality  rather  than  by  mere  outer 
form  of  either  word  or  deed.  For  it  should  be  noted 
that  the  fellowship  here  expressed  by  the  "  Pillars  " 
with  Paul  was  not  the  result  of  a  complete  unanimity 
of  opinion  nor  of  likeness  in  method.  Paul  and  the 
"  Pillars  "  did  not  agree  in  their  estimate  of  the  im- 
portance of  the  Law  nor  in  their  methods  of  work.i^ 
Peter  and  James  and  John  believed  that  the  Law  must  be 
preserved  and  they  could  not  possibly  preach  the 
Gospel  without  the  Law  ;  Paul  valued  the  Law  as 
having  come  from  God^^  but  believed  that  the  Gospel 
made  the  Law  obsolete.  The  Pillars  and  Paul  did,  then, 
really  have  different  points  of  view  and  different  methods, 
3"et  each  side  was  great  enough  to  recognize  the  true  spirit 
and  the  unity  of  purpose  in  the  other  side  and  thus  to 
be  guided  by  the  Spirit.  Neither  did  they  cease  to  act 
according  to  their  different  points  of  view.  They  simply 
agreed  to  work  in  the  different  fields  where  their  methods 
would  best  apply  ;  Paul  was  to  go  to  the  Gentiles  who 
could  not  possibly  keep  the  Jewdsh  Law  and  Peter  to 
the  Jews  who  couldn't  give  up  the  Law.  Nor  did  they 
recognize  each  other's  difference  in  any  grudging  spirit, 

^'  GaL  ii.  7-9. 

1*  GaL  ii.   3. 

^^  Of  course  the}'-  did  agree  in  certain  fundamentals — their 
devotion  to  Jesus  as  Messiah,  etc.  See  ch.  X.,  p.  102-104,  for 
further  indications  of  their  agreement. 

"  Rom.  iii.  2. 


PAUL    STANDS    FOR        LIBERTY 


9^ 


but  rather  in  the  true  fellowship  which  they  had  in  their 
devotion  to  the  Gospel  of  Jesus.  With  Paul's  account 
of  his  conference  in  Jerusalem  it  will  be  interesting  and 
important  to  compare  Luke's.  Since  Luke  gives  two 
accounts  either  one  or  both  of  which  may  be  the  same 
as  the  visit  which  Paul  describes  we  will  look  at  the 
material  arranged  in  parallel  columns  (see  pages  92-4). 

It  is  quite  evident  from  this  comparison  that  it  is  the 
fifteenth  chapter  of  Acts  which  is  most  nearly  like  Paul's 
account.  Everything  is  told  from  a  different  point  of 
view  by  Luke,  but  he  tells  of  the  same  people  travelling 
from  and  to  the  same  place,  in  spirited  conference  over 
the  same  general  question,  which  is  brought  up  by  the 
same  kind  of  people,  concerning  which  the  same  conclu- 
sion is  reached  ;  unless  the  letter  sent  to  Antioch  by 
Silas  and  Judas  be  considered  as  a  request  to  keep  part 
of  the  Law.  But  Luke  does  not  report  that  the  Antioch 
people  considered  that  their  liberty  was  limited  for  they 
"  rejoiced  at  the    consolation. "i^     x\nother    difference 

"  Paul  does  not  state  that  it  was  from  Antioch  that  he  went 
up  to  Jerasaleni,  but  the  casual  way  in  which  Antioch  is 
introduced  in  GaL  ii.  11,  implies  that  it  was  his  centre  during 
these  events,  as  Luke  says. 

^^  It  is  a  problem  of  great  difficulty  to  determine  what  the 
rules  laid  down  in- the  Apostolic  Letter  were;  As  our  text 
stands  (Acts  xv.  29),  the  people  of  Antioch  were  told  to  abstain 
(i)  from  things  sacrificed  to  idols,  (2)  from  blood,  (3)  from 
things  strangled,  (4)  from  fornication.  The  first  three  seem  to 
be  ceremonial  food  laws,  and  the  last  a  moral  law.  But  it  is 
strange  that  Paul  should  say,  they  "  imparted  nothing  to  me  " 
(Gal.  ii.  6),  if  the  Apostles  had  told  him  that  he  must  be  sure  to 
enforce  these  food  laws.  Furthermore,  his  discussion  of  foods 
in  I  Cor.  x.,  and  Rom.  xiv.,  gives  no  evidence  that  Paul  had  ever 
heard  of  such  a  decree  as  this.  Now  there  is  some  manuscript 
evidence  indicating  that  the  decrees  may  originally  have  read  : 
abstain  from  (i)  things  offered  to  idols  {i.e.,  idolatry,)  (2)  blood 
{i.e.,  murder),  (3)  fornication.  In  this  case  the  laws  would  be 
strictly  moral.  Neither  does  Paul  refer  to  any  such  moral  la\y 
even  when  he  is  insisting  that  fornication  shall  not  be  tolerated 
a  moment  (i  Cor.  v.),  but  it  would  be  easier  to  understand  how 
Paul  could  consider  that  the  Apostles  had  "  imparted  nothing  " 
to  him  if  their  requests  were  moral  ones  which  he  believed  in 
anyway.      Of  course  it  is  possible  that  Paul  believed  in  these 


9- 


THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 


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PAUL   STANDS   FOR    "  LIBERTY  "  93 


g    s       s       g         S  g       g 

<^     <        <        <  <;  <        <       ' 

O       H  H  (^  PiH  <  < 


^^.  £-:^l  o^  53  i^^^i  1^:8  pail 


oj  "*^,.  c-:^^^3     ^'0)5 


-  -  <  Ph  H  t— )  ; 


94 


THE    LIFE    AND   MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 


•  •-t 

-t-j    C 


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<  < 


PAUL   STANDS   FOR   "  LIBERTY  "  95 

in  the  two  accounts  is  the  fact  that  Paul  describes  his 
conference  with  the  "  Pillars  "  as  priv^ate,  except  for 
the  "  false  brethren  "  privily  brought  in,  while  Luke,  by 
many  little  touches  and  by  introducing  formal  speeches 
by  Peter  and  James,i9  gives  the  impression  of  a  formal 
Apostolic  Council.  But  this  is  just  the  kind  of  difference 
that  a  later  wTiter  would  naturally  and  perhaps  un- 
consciously introduce,  for  to  him  it  would  seem  an  official 
and  authoritative  decision. 

But  this  council  visit  Luke  reports  as  the  third  visit^^ 
to  Jerusalem,  whereas  Paul  reports  it  as  his  second. 
Luke  puts  second  a  relief  visit  in  which  Paul  and 
Barnabas  were  sent  up  from  Antioch  to  Jerusalem  to 
take  the  contribution  which  the  brethren  had  sent 
because  of  a  famine. 21  But  might  not  Paul  have  taken 
up  the  contribution  from  the  Antioch  brethren  at  the 
same  time  that  he  laid  his  Gospel  before  the  "  Pillars  " 
and  received  from  James  and  Peter  assurance  that  the 
Gentiles  need  not  be  burdened  by  the  Law  ?  This 
would,  then,  be  Paul's  second  visit  as  he  said  and  Luke 
would  only  have  made  the  mistake  of  supposing  that 
there  were  two  journeys  to  Jerusalem,  because  there 

food-laws  anyway,  and  therefore  did  not  regard  them  as  anything 
new  imparted  to  him,  but  food-laws  do  not  seem  so  naturally  a 
part  of  Paul's  interest  as  moral  laws.  Luke  has  certainly  laid 
greater  emphasis  on  these  decrees  than  Paul  ever  did,  and  it 
seems  as  though  Luke  must  be  mistaken  when  he  saj^s  that  Paul 
and  his  companions  went  through  the  cities  delivering  "  the 
decrees  for  to  keep  which  had  been  ordained  of  the  apostles 
and  elders  that  were  at  Jerusalem  "  (Acts  xvi.  4).  For  further 
discussion  see  Lake,  "The  Earlier  Epistles,"  pp.  46-60.  Bacon, 
"  Com.  on  Galatians,"  appendix.  Harnack,  "  The  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,"  p.  248  ff.,  etc. 

^^  These  speeches  can  hardly  have  been  written  down  at  the 
time,  but  are  rather  a  statement  by  Luke  of  what  he  was 
informed  the  attitude  of  James  and  Peter  was  at  the  conference. 

2"  According  to  Luke  :  ist  visit — After  the  persecution  in 
Damascus.  2nd  visit — the  carrying  of  relief  told  of  in  Acts  xi. 
3rd  visit — the  Apostolic  Council.     See  p.  86  for  Paul's  account. 

^  Agabus  is  said  to  prophecy  a  famine,  and  the  brethren  are 
said  to  have  sent  relief  "  every  man  according  to  his  ability." 


96  THE    LIFE    AND   MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

were  two  things  accomplished  there.  Perhaps  one 
person  told  him  that  Panl  took  contributions  up  to 
Jerusalem,  and  another  that  he  presented  the  question 
of  the  freedom  of  the  Gospel  for  the  Gentiles,  and  Luke 
supposed  this  meant  two  visits. 

Paul's  last  words  about  the  conference  also  have  a 
bearing  on  the  solution  of  this  problem.  He  says  that 
the  "  Pillars  "  made  just  one  request  of  him  : 

"  Only  they  would  that  we  should  remember  the  poor  ; 
which  very  thing  I  was  also  zealous  to  do. "22 

This  certainly  means  that  Peter  and  James  hoped  that 
Paul  would  not  forget  to  send  money  for  the  poor  in 
Jerusalem.  Does  this  imply  that  Paul  had  already 
remembered  the  poor  ?  And  does  his  expression  of 
zeal  for  that  "  very  thing  "  imply  that  he  had  already 
manifested  this  zeal  ?  In  short,  do  these  words  mean 
that  Paul  had  brought  up  some  money  and  presented 
it  to  the  Pillars  for  the  poor  ?  The  words  certainly 
can  indicate  this.  Indeed,  they  can,  and  perhaps  should, 
be  translated,  "  Which  very  thing  I  had  been  zealous  to 
do."23  It  seems  possible,  then,  that  the  accounts  com- 
pared in  the  above  three  columns  are  three  renderings 
of  the  same  visit  to  Jerusalem  by  Paul  and  Barnabas.^* 

22  Gal.  ii.  10. 

^  Ramsay  freely  translates  thus  :  "A  duty  which  as  a  matter 
of  fact  I,  at  that  time  made  it  my  special  object  to  perform." 
"  St.  Paul,  the  Traveller  and  Roman  Citizen,"  pp.  56,  57.  He 
says  that  this  states  the  main  object  of  the  visit.  Lake  agrees 
with  this,  and  paraphrases  thus  :  They  "  only  begged  me  to 
continue  my  care  for  the  poor — which  was  the  main  object  I 
had  in  hand  at  the  time." — "  Earlier  EpiriHes,"  p.  290. 

2*  It  is  evident  that  the  arrangement  of  these  visits  in  Paul's 
life  is  sufficiently  problematical  to  call  forth  a  variety  of  arrange- 
ments.    One  of  the  most  widely  accepted  is  as  follows  : — 

Gal.  ii.=:Acts  xi.  This  was  a  "  relief  visit,"  though  Paul  did 
talk  with  the  Jerusalem  apostles  about  his  Gospel,  as  he  says, 
but  Luke  fails  to  note  it.  The  Apostolic  Council  came  later 
and  is  recorded  in  Acts  xv.  only.  This  theory  claims  that  Paul's 
Gospel  and  the  question  of  circumcision  were  entirely  different, 
and,  therefore.  Gal.  ii.  and  Acts  xv.  are  not  on  the  same  subject, 


i 


PAUL    STANDS    FOR        LIBERTY  97 

This  means  that  the  Jerusalem  Apostles  had  been  given 
definite  evidence  of  the  warmth  of  fellowship  which  the 
Antioch  brethren  felt  for  them.  This  would  be  another 
reason  for  their  reciprocating  that  fellowship.  It  is 
possible  that  Paul  and  Barnabas  stayed  in  Jerusalem  for 
some  time,  and  distributed  money  or  food,  for  the  phrase, 
they  "  fulfilled  their  ministration  "^5  may  imply  that  they 
themselves  ministered  personally. 

We  know  of  one  person  who  came  up  to  Jerusalem 
and  distributed  food  at  this  time  for  Josephus  says  that 
a  "  great  famine^^  happened  in  Judcea  in  which  Queen 
Helena  bought  corn  in  Egypt  at  a  great  expense  and 
distributed  it  to  those  who  were  in  want."27  She  sent 
some  of  her  servants  to  Alexandria  to  buv  corn  and 


It  also  lays  great  emphasis  upon  the  fact  that  Paul  said  his 
conference  was  private,  while  the  Luke  account  in  Acts  xv.  is 
evidently  official.  It  points  out  that  Acts  does  not  mention 
Titus,  etc.,  etc.  It  finds  itself,  therefore,  driven  to  claim  that 
the  ambiguous  clause  in  Gal.  ii.  lo,  "  which  very  thing  I  was  also 
zealous  to  do,"  contains  the  main  object  of  the  journey  to 
Jerusalem.  See  Ramsay's  "  St.  Paul,  the  Traveller  and  Roman 
Citizen,"  and  Lake's  "  Earlier  Epistles."  For  other  views  see 
other  studies  of  Paul. 

25  Acts  xii.  25.     See  Ramsay,  51  ff. 

2^  Josephus  says  ("  Ant.,"  XX.,  v.  2)  that  this  famine  occurred 
in  the  procuratorships  of  Fadus  and  Tiberius  Alexander.  This 
means  somewhere  between  44  a.d.  and  48  a.d.  This  agrees 
with  Acts  xi.  which  puts  it  after  the  death  of  Herod  Agrippa 
(44  A.D.)  and  in  the  reign  of  Claudius  (41-54  a.d.).  The  date 
cannot  be  fixed  more  exactly  than  this,  else  we  might  fix  the  date 
of  Paul's  conversion,  perhaps.  Let  us  suppose  that  the  famine 
were  in  46  a.d.,  then  let  us  subtract  the  fourteen  years  which 
Paul  puts  between  his  first  and  second  visit,  and  the  three  years 
of  his  Arabian  and  Damascus  experience  this  gives  us  29  a.d. 
But  this  is  too  early,  for  the  death  of  Jesus  probably  belongs  to 
29-30  a.d.  But  probably  the  fourteen  years  and  the  three  years 
counted  parts  of  years.  Or,  perhaps,  Paul's  fourteen  years  is 
counted  from  his  conversion.  Evidently  there  are  too  man}'' 
uncertainties  here  to  produce  a  certainty.  All  that  can  be 
said  is  that  the  reference  to  the  famine  indicates  that  Paul's 
conversion  was  not  many  years  after  the  death  of  Jesus, 

2'  Jos.  "^Ant.,"  XX.,  v.  2- 


98  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

others  to  Cy})rus  "  to  bring  a  cargo  of  dried  figs."  This 
she  distributed  herself  and  as  soon  as  her  son  Izates'-^ 
heard  of  the  famine  he  sent  "  a  great  sum  of  money  to  the 
principal  men  in  Jerusalem. '"^^  Queen  Helena  was  a 
convert  to  Judaism,  and  probably  had  never  heard  of 
Jesus.  Might  she  possibly  have  met  Paul  and  Barnabas 
as  they  were  engaged  in  their  ministrations  ?  Even  so, 
she  probably  would  have  had  no  chance  of  learning  from 
them  the  still  higher  type  of  monotheism,  that  of  a  God 
who  continually  reveals  Himself  and  has  made  this 
fact  fully  known  through  Jesus  Christ,  for  there  is  no 
indication  that  Paul  did  any  preaching  during  this 
visit. 3^ 

What,  then,  did  Paul  accomplish  on  this  second 
journey  to  Jerusalem  ?  He  gave  tangible  proof  of  the 
fellowship  underlying  the  life  of  Christian  communities 
widely  separated  in  space  and  thought.  He  won 
acknowledgment  of  the  fact  that  the  Gospel  of  Jesus 
Christ  is  a  new  type  of  life  with  no  essential  relationship 
to  forms  and  ceremonies.  The  grace  of  God  in  a  life, 
he  showed,  was  what  determined  whether  or  not  it  was 
Christian.  Thus  Paul,  rather  than  the  disciples  who 
had  heard  Jesus  speak,  saw  the  full  meaning  of  the 
statement  that  "  new  wine  "  could  not  be  confined  in 
"  old  wine  skins.''^i  Whether  Paul  ever  heard  that 
saying  or  not,  he  was  the  one  who  threw  away  the  old 
skins  and  left  the  new  life  free  to  revitalize  the  world, 
and  create  its  own  forms. ^2 


2«  See  ch.  VITI.,  p.  51. 
2J  Jos.  "  Ant.,"  XX.,  ii.  5. 


^•^  Helena  was  buried  in  Jerusalem  in  a  three  p^^ramid  tomb 
which  she  had  built  for  herself  and  her  family.  The  pyramids 
have  been  destroyed  but  the  tombs  still  exist  and  are  known  as 
the  "  Tombs  of  the  Kings."  A  sarcophagus  found  there  was 
inscribed  "  The  Queen  Zadda."  Was  this  another  name  of  hers  ? 
See  Schlirer,  Div.   TL,  Vol.   2,  p.   311. 

31  Mk.  ii.  22. 

32  Ut.  xiii.   33. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  "  TRUTH  OF  THE  GOSPEL  "  MAINTAINED  IX  ANTIOCH. 

"But  when  Cephas  came  to  Antioch,  I  resisted  hhn 
to  the  face,  because  he  stood  condemned. "^ 

Paul  had  won  a  victory  for  a  great  ideal  ;  furthermore 
he  had  practised  that  ideal,  and  therefore  knew  its  full 
significance.  It  was  for  the  continuance  of  the  "truth 
of  the  Gospel,"  "  with  you,"  as  he  wrote  to  the  Galatians, 
that  he  had  refused  to  give  way  for  a  moment  to  those 
who  attempted  to  spy  out  the  "  liberty  "  "in  Christ 
Jesus. "2  This  victory  which  Paul  had  won  for  the 
Galatians  was,  of  course,  also  a  victory  for  the  Gentiles 
everywhere,  and  hence  for  the  Antiochians.  When 
he  returned  to  Antioch,  therefore,  he,  no  doubt,  brought 
the  good  news  that  "  the  truth  of  the  gospel  might 
continue  "  among  them  and  entered  again  into  the  prac- 
tice of  the  ideal  of  liberty  and  complete  fellowship  which 
the  "truth  of  the  gospel"  implied. 

But  once  more  Paul  was  compelled  to  stand  up  for 
the  defence  of  the  Gospel  when  Peter  came  to  Antioch. 
One  of  the  expressions  of  the  fellowship  which  the 
disciples  of  Jesus  in  the  different  communities  felt  for 
each  other  seems  to  have  been  the  common-meal.  They 
shared  their  common  life  in  this  way.-^  Peter  seems  to 
have  come  to  Antioch  for  the  purpose  of  expressing  to 
the  Christians  there  the  good-will  which  he  had  ex- 
pressed to  Paul  when  he  gave  him  the  "  right  hand  of 

1  Gal.  ii.   II. 

2  Gal.  ii.  4.  5. 

'  See  Acts  ii.>|42,  46;  i  Cor.  xi.  lyfi.  These  common-meals 
were  later  called  Love-feasts.  See  Jude  12  ;  2  Pet.  ii.  13.  The 
Greek  word,  Agape,  was  used. 


k 


99 


TOO  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

fellowslii}),'''*  for  he  joined  in  the  common-meal  and  "  ate 
with  the  Gentiles  "  thus  taking  them  as  true  brothers. 

All  went  well  until  "  certain  came  from  James, 
but  when  they  came,  he  drew  back  and  separated  him- 
self, fearmg  them  that  were  of  the  circumcision."^ 
What  consternation  this  sudden  withdrawal  of  Peter's 
must  have  caused  in  the  Antioch  Christian  community  ! 
Obviously  brotherhood  could  not  thrive  where  one  part 
of  the  community  regarded  the  rest  as  unclean.  Had 
Peter  forgotten  the  days  when  with  Jesus  he  had  eaten 
with  publicans  and  sinners  ?^  Why  did  he  not  see  that 
he  had  been  right  at  first  in  thinking  that  this  was  a 
time  for  laying  aside  exclusive  Jewish  rules  P"^  At  any 
rate,  here  is  the  same  impulsive  Peter  of  the  Gospels. 
First  he  is  swayed  by  his  impulse  to  full  brotherhood 
with  these  eager  earnest  disciples,  then  fear  drives  him 
back  into  his  narrow  Pharisaism.  Just  so  his  love  had 
once  taken  him  into  the  place  where  his  Master  was  on 
trial  for  his  life  and  fear  had  made  him  deny  him  there. 
No  wonder  that  Paul  felt  that  Peter"  stood  condemned." 
No  wonder  that  he  "  resisted  him  to  the  face."^  Such 
wavering  seemed  hypocritical  and  the  consequences 
might  be  tragic  to  the  Christian  community.  Alread}^ 
the  "  rest  of  the  Jews  dissembled,"  with  Peter  "  in- 
somuch that  even  Barnabas  was  carried  away  with 
their  hypocrisy. "^ 

But  why  did  James  use  his  influence  to  keep  Peter  and 
Barnabas  and  all  the  Jews  from  joining  fully  in  the  fellow- 
ship at  Antioch  when  he,  too,  had  given  the  right  hand  of 
fellowship  to  Paul  at  Jerusalem  ?  Because  this  is  a  new 
question  which  was  not  considered  at  the  Jerusalem 

4  GaL  ii.  9. 

^  GaL  ii.   12. 

^  Mk.  ii.   15-17. 

'  Of  course  Jesus'  work,  too,  had  been  almost  entirely  with 
Jews,  and  Jesus  had  kept  the  Law  except  where  it  violated  his 
principles.  If  Peter  had  followed  his  impulses  he  would  have 
acted  on  the  principles  of  Jesus. 

8  Gal.  ii.  II. 

^  Gal.  ii.  13. 


THE    GOSPEL         MAINTAINED    IN     ANTIOCH         lOI 

conference.  It  had  there  been  recognised  that  there 
were  two  fields  for  the  spread  of  the  Gospel,  the  Gentile 
field  and  the  Jewish  field.  It  had  been  agreed  that 
Paul  and  Barnabas  should  take  the  Gospel  to  the  Gentiles 
without  laying  upon  them  the  bondage  of  the  Law  ;  they 
should  go  to  the  uncircumcision  and  Peter  to  the  cir- 
cumcision. But  nothing  had  been  said  about  the 
keeping  of  the  Law  when  Jews  and  Gentiles  met  together 
perhaps  at  a  common-meal. ^^  Now  Peter  is  out  of  his 
field  and  he  frankly  does  not  know  how  to  act  in  the 
Gentile  world.  He  had  agreed  at  Jerusalem  to  the 
theoretical  ideal  of  the  liberty  of  the  Gospel  for  Gentiles, 
but  he  had  put  that  ideal  into  practice  only  on  one 
occasion,  and,  therefore,  he  did  not  know  all  sides  of  it. 
It  seems  exceedingly  strange,  however,  that  he  was  not 
more  influenced  by  that  experience  with  Cornelius  after 
which  the  Jerusalem  apostles  had  said  to  him,  "  Thou 
wentest  in  to  men  uncircumcised  and  didst  eat  with 
them, "11  and  he  had  defended  his  action  by  declaring 
that  God  had  said  to  him  in  a  vision,  "  What  God  has 
cleansed,  make  not  thou  common  "12  ^^d  by  the  fact  that 
"  Cornelius  and  those  with  him  did  evidently  receive  the 
Holy  Spirit. "13  Then,  as  now,  he  had  been  influenced 
by  the  real  Christian  life  which  he  perceived,  and  he 
had  responded  to  it  with  brotherhood,  but  he  had  not 
staid  and  lived  with  Cornelius  nor  other  Gentiles  and  he, 
therefore,  did  not  realize  the  full  bearing  of  his  action 
here  at  Antioch.     But  Paul  saw  the  underlying  prin- 

^°  Of  course,  if  we  knew  that  the  decrees  of  Acts  xv.  were  food 
laws,  it  would  have  some  bearing  on  this  question.  Still  there 
is  nothing  in  this  Galatians  narrative  to  indicate  that  the  difficulty- 
was  with  the  food.  It  seems  rather  to  have  been  simply  the  act 
of  eating  with  unclean  Gentiles.    See  ch.  IX.,  p.  19. 

^^  Acts  xi.   3. 

^^  Acts  xi.  9  ;    X.  27,  28. 

'^^  One  cannot  resist  the  feeling  that  the  number  of  visions 
recorded  in  Acts  x. — xi.  18  is  overdrawn.  Probably  the  facts 
lying  behind  this  web  of  visions  in  Acts  are  that  Cornelius  and 
others  were  converted,  and  Peter  impulsively  laid  aside  his 
Jewish  rules  for  the  moment  to  acknowledge  it. 


102  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

ciples,  and  he  knew  that  "  the  liberty  "  "  in  Christ 
Jesus  "  was  threatened.  He  knew  that  while  Peter's 
withdrawal  was  not  a  violation  of  the  agreement  made 
at  Jerusalem,  it  nevertheless  made  that  agreement 
practically  worthless  because  it  destroyed  liberty  to 
couple  with  it  inferiority.  The  Gentiles  could  not  be 
told  in  the  same  breath  that  they  were  free  to  become 
Christians,  and  that  they  were  inferior  unclean  Christians. 
This,  to  Paul's  mind,  was  a  violation  of  the  "  truth  of 
the  Gospel  "  and  a  violation  of  Peter's  own  best  im- 
pulses and  thought.  Peter  ought  not  to  have  been 
guided  by  James  who  was  far  away,  and  could  not  fully 
know  the  cirumstances.i*  He  ought  to  have  been  true 
to  his  inner  Christian  impulses.  Since  he  was  not,  and 
since  the  very  existence  of  the  Gospel  among  the  Gentiles 
depended  on  it,  Paul  was  compelled  to  "  resist  him  to 
the  face."  Apparently  it  was  at  one  of  the  common- 
meals  when,  perhaps,  the  Jews  insisted  on  having  a 
separate  place  for  Jews  to  eat  ;  at  least  it  was  when  the 
community  of  Christians  was  all  gathered  together  for 
Paul  put  the  matter  to  Peter  "  before  them  all."  He 
describes  the  scene  thus  : 

"  When  I  saw  that  they  w^alked  not  uprightly  accord- 
ing to  the  truth  of  the  Gospel,  I  said  unto  Cephas  before 
them  all,  If  thou,  being  a  Jew,  livest  as  do  the  Gentiles, 
and  not  as  do  the  Jews,  how  compellest  thou  the  Gentiles 
to  live  as  do  the  Jews  ?  "i^ 

This  seems  at  first  a  strange  way  to  state  the  situation 
since  the  one  thing  that  Peter  was  refusing  to  do  was 
to  live  like  the  Gentiles.  The  Jews  must  have  wondered, 
too,  exactly  what  Paul  meant  by  saying  that  Peter  com- 
pelled "  the  Gentiles  to  live  as  do  the  Jews,"  for  was  not 
the  greatest  liberty  being  given  to  the  Gentiles  to  live 
and  eat  as  they  pleased  ?  But  by  means  of  this  question 
Paul  unearths  one  fact  that  is  wrong  with  their  brother- 

^*  Perhaps  if  James  had  been  present  he  would  have  acted  just 
as  Peter  had  in  joining  the  fellowship,  for  he  had  "  perceived  the 
grace  "  given  to  Paul.  Gal.  ii.  9.  See  also  Acts  xi.  18,  where  he 
was  persuaded  by  Peter's  account  of  Cornelius. 

15  Gal.  ii.  14. 


THE    GOSPEL        MAINTAINED    IN    ANTIOCH  I03 

hood — down  deep  in  their  minds  the  Jews  believe  them- 
selves to  be  superior  to  the  Gentiles.  There  is  con- 
descension in  their  fellowship.  They  even  take  it  for 
granted  that  the  Gentiles  will  be  quite  content  to  remain 
in  their  subordinate  position.  It  does  not  occur  to  them 
that  by  setting  themselves  off  as  more  holy  than  the 
Gentiles  they  practically  compel  them  to  keep  the  Law 
if  they  aspire  to  the  highest.  That  was  just  the  diffi- 
culty— they  thought  the  Gentiles  were  only  "  sinners 
of  the  Gentiles,"  as  Paul  ironically  says  in  his  next 
sentence, i<5  and  that  they  would  not  aspire  to  the  highest. 
But  Paul  knows  the  Gentiles  better  than  Peter  and  he 
expects  the  highest  things  from  them,  and  can,  there- 
fore, be  a  real  brother  to  them.  This  is  one  reason 
why  Paul  was  the  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles  and  Peter  was 
not.  Peter's  impulses  to  brotherhood  were  true  and 
right  as  far  as  they  went,  but  it  was  difficult  for  him  to 
overcome  his  provincialism  and  enter  into  complete 
fellowship  with  any  but  Jews.  Therefore,  he  was  fitted 
to  take  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ  only  to  Jews,  since 
it  is  a  Gospel  of  Love,  while  Paul  was  able  to  enter  into 
sympathy  with  both  Jew  and  Gentile. 

But  Paul's  question  points  out  not  only  this  flaw  in 
Peter's  practice  of  brotherhood  among  the  Gentiles, 
but  also  that  his  action  is  inconsistent  with  his  own 
thought  about  "  the  truth  of  the  Gospel."  Peter  himself 
lives  like  the  Gentiles,  Paul's  question  implies. 
How  ?  By  being  a  Christian  on  exactly  the  same  basis 
as  they,  that  is,  on  the  basis  of  faith  in  Jesus.  "  We," 
says  Paul,   including  him-self  and  Peter, 

"  We  .  .  .  knowing  that  a  man  is  not  justified 
by  the  works  of  the  law,  save  through  faith  in  Jesus 
Christ,  even  we  believed  on  Jesus  Christ  that  we  might 
be  justified  bv  faith  in  Christ,  and  not  bv  the  works  of 
the  law."i7 

i«  Gal.  ii.    15. 

"  Gal.  ii.  15,16.  For  discussion  of  the  word  "  justify,"  which 
occurs  here,  and  of  how  one  can  be  justified  by  faith,  see 
ch.  XVIII.,  p.  205. 


104  THK    LIFE    AND   MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

Here,  then,  is  a  common  basis  of  unity  which  Peter 
acknowledges,  but  has  violated  in  refusing  to  sit  down 
at  the  common  meal  with  Gentiles,  This  "  faith  in  Jesus 
Christ  "  is  the  one  living  principle  which  is  the  source  of 
all  the  new  life  that  is  remaking  the  world.  The  reach- 
ing out  of  the  heart  in  confidence  and  love  toward  Jesus 
Christ — this  is  the  "  faith  "  that  is  giving  new  spiritual 
meaning,  new  hope  and  joy  to  the  life  of  all  kinds  of 
people  in  Jerusalem,  Galatia  and  Antioch.  They  feel 
that  the  old  barriers  that  separated  them  have  dis- 
appeared when  they  come  together  in  their  meeting  or 
common  meal,  drawn  by  their  common  love  for  Jesus 
Christ.  But  Peter  has  insisted  on  building  up  again  the 
Jewish  barrier  although  he  knows  that  as  a  Christian  he 
lives  on  exactly  the  same  fundamental  principle  as  the 
Gentiles  do,  which  is  "  faith  in  Jesus  Christ. "i^  Therefore 
Paul  undoubtedly  refers  to  Peter  when  he  says, 

"  If  I  build  up  again  those  things  which  I  destroyed, 
I  prove  myself  a  transgressor. "i^ 

Strange  to  say,  we  do  not  know  what  effect  these 
strong  words  in  this  public  rebuke  had  upon  Peter. 
Did  he  acknowledge  that  Paul  was  right  and  enter  again 
into  fellowship  with  the  Gentiles?  Certainly  Paul's 
narration  of  events  implies  that  the  "  truth  of  the 
Gospel  "  was  successfully  upheld  on  this  occasion,  and 
no  barrier  permitted  to  be  built  up  between  the  disciples 
in  the  Antioch  community.  Peter  either  was  convinced 
by  Paul  or  went  away  and  left  the  Gentile  field  to  him. 

One  reason  why  Paul  forgets  to  finish  the  account 
of  the  visit  of  Peter  to  Antioch  is  that  his  reference  to 
Peter's  building  up  again  the  things  that  he  had  des- 
troyed reminds   Paul  of   the  day  when  the  Law  was 

^^  This  agreement  of  Paul  and  Peter  on  faith  as  the  fundamental 
element  of  the  new  Christian  life  which  Paul's  \\  ords  here  in 
Galatians  so  definitely  imply  is  also  stated  by  Luke  in  the  speech 
which  he  reports  that  Peter  made  at  the  Jerusalem  conference, 
in  which  he  said  : 

"  He  (God)  made  no  distinction  between  us  and  them, 
cleansin<?  their  hearts  by  faith."     Acts  xv.  9. 

'■'>  Gal.  ii.   18. 


THE    GOSPEL        MAINTAINED    IN    ANTIOCH  IO5 

destroyed  for  him,  and  Faith  came  into  his  life.  It 
will  be  worth  while  to  look  here  at  his  words  to  see  more 
exactly  what  Faith  is  to  Paul.    He  says  : 

"  For  I  through  the  law  died  to  the  law  that  I  might 
live  unto  God.  I  have  been  crucified  with  Christ ;  yet 
/  live  ;  and  yet  no  longer  I,  hut  Christ  liveth  in  me  ; 
and  that  life  which  I  now  live  in  the  flesh  /  live  in  faith, 
the  faith  which  is  in  the  Son  of  God,  who  loved  me  and 
gave  himself  up  for  me. "20 

This  makes  it  clear  that  the  life  of  Faith  is  but  another 
term  for  the  life  of  the  Christ  within.  It  is  a  term  which 
emphasizes  Paul's  side  of  the  relationship  to  Christ. 
He  has  faith,  that  is,  confidence  toward  Christ  and 
Christ  lives  within  him.  On  that  day  on  the  way  to 
Damascus  when  through  the  Law  he  died  to  the  Law^i 
this  new  life  of  Faith  began  within  him.  Since  then, 
he  has  seen  this  inner  power  transform  the  lives  of 
many  others.  He,  therefore,  is  determined  that  no 
barrier  shall  be  placed  between  the  soul  that  is  reaching 
out  with  Faith  toward  Christ  and  the  answering  love 
which  makes-  life  a  joyful  companionship  with  God  in 
Christ  and  with  his  disciples  everywhere  whether  Jew 
or  Greek. 


2"  Gal.  ii.  19,  20.  It  is  impossible  to  say  exactly  at  what  point 
in  these  verses  Paul's  account  of  what  he  said  to  Peter  ends. 
Probably  verse  18  is  the  last  one  that  refers  to  Peter,  but  19  and 
20  show  what  this  Faith  of  which  he  has  spoken  to  Peter  means 
to  Paul. 

^^  See  ch.  V.,  p.  52. 


CHAPTER  XT 

PAUL  TAKES  THE  "  FAITH  OF  THE   GOSPEL  "  INTO   GREECE 

Again  Paul's  hopes  reach  out  toward  new  lands  to 
conquer  and  toward  the  "  brethren"  in  the  cities  where 
he  has  already  proclaimed  the  "  faith  of  the  gospel. "i 
He  asks  Barnabas  to  accompany  him  and  Barnabas 
wishes  to  take  Mark,  but  Paul  "  thought  not  good  to 
take  with  them  him  who  withdrew  from  them  from 
Pamphvlia,  and  went  not  with  them  to  the  work." 
Luke  says  that  a  "  sharp  contention  arose  so  that  they 
parted  asunder  one  from  the  other."^  Apparently, 
Paul  wanted  only  dependable  people  to  undertake  this 
enterprise  with  him.  Perhaps  one  reason  he  was  willing 
to  give  up  Barnabas  was  that  he  had  less  confidence 
in  him  since  he  had  proven  untrue  to  the  principles  of 
the  Gentile  mission  by  withdrawing  with  Peter  and 
refusing  to  eat  with  Gentiles.^ 

His  old  friends  having  failed  him.  "  Paul  chose  Silas  " 
as  his  helper.  Now  Silas  was  one  of  the  chief  men  among 
the  Jerusalem  brethren. ^  Perhaps  he  and  Paul  had 
become  friends  through  the  events  connected  with  the 
Jerusalem  conference.  Perhaps  Paul's  setting  forth  of 
the  success  of  the  Gospel  among  the  Gentiles  made  him 
wish  to  have  a  part  in  it.  He  was  a  "  prophet,"  and 
had  been  sent  to  Antioch  with  Paul  and  Barnabas  after 
the  Conference.     He  had  returned  to  Jerusalem,  and 

1  Phil.  i.  27. 

2  Acts  XV.  36-39  ;    see  ch.  VIII..  p.  78. 
^  Gal.  ii.  12,  13  ;    see  ch.  X.,  p.  100. 

*  Acts  XV.  22. 

io5 


FAITH    OF   THE    GOSPEL       TAKEN    INTO    GREECE     JOJ 

reported  to  those  who  sent  him.^  Luke  savs  nothing 
about  his  returning  to  Antioch,  but  apparently  he  had 
returned  of  his  own  accord,  no  doubt,  then,  because 
of  his  interest  in  the  spreading  of  the  Gospel  among  the 
Greeks  of  Antioch.  For  there  he  was,  ready  to  be 
chosen  by  Paul  for  his  great  new  enterprise.  By  follow- 
ing out  the  line  of  his  greatest  interest  he  found  the 
opening  for  his  life  work. 

Paul  and  Silas  "went  forth,  being  commended  by 
the  brethren  to  the  grace  of  the  Lord.  They  "  went 
through  Syria  and  Cilicia  confirming  the  churches," 
and  came  to  Derbe  and  Lystra,  and  Iconium  where 
disciples,  no  doubt,  welcomed  Paul  as  the  one  who  had 
first  told  them  of  Jesus.  One  of  these  disciples  of 
Lystra  named  Timothy,  Paul  found  "  well  reported  of 
by  the  brethren  that  were  at  Lystra  and  Iconium," 
and  he  invited  him  "to  go  forth  with  him."^     Paul 

^  Acts  XV.  22,  32,  ^i-  Concerning  his  connection  with  "  the 
decrees,"  see  ch.  IX.,  p.  Qi. 

®  Acts  XV.  41 — xvi.  3.  Luke  here  also  says  that  Paul  circumcised 
Timothy  because  of  the  Jews  in  that  region.  They  all  knew 
that  his  father  was  a  Greek,  that  is,  they  all  knew  that  he  had 
never  been  circumciserl,  althoagh  his  mother  was  a  Jew.  It 
seems  hard  to  believe  that  Paul  would  circumcise  Timothy  when 
his  conference  with  the  Apostles  in  Jerusalem  shows  so  plainly 
that  he  believes  that  the  Law  has  nothing  whatsoever  to  add  to 
the  Gospel,  and  when  he  has  severely  rebuked  Peter  for  acting 
as  though  it  were  important.  ButGal.v.  11,  says,  "  Bat,  I  brethren, 
if  I  still  preach  circumcision,  why  am  I  still  persecuted  ?  "  This 
shows  that  Paul  had  done  something  to  which  his  enemies  could 
point  and  say,  "He  still  believes  in  circumcision."  Possibly  this 
was  the  circumcision  of  Timothy.  There  certainly  was  no  reason 
why  Timothy  should  be  circumcised  to  prepare  him  for  the  work 
among  Gentiles  in  the  midst  of  which  he  then  was,  and  in  which 
he  was  setting  forth,  but  it  is  possible  that  Paul  thought  that  he 
ought  to  be  prepared  to  work  among  Jews  too,  if  opportunity 
offered.  The  Jerusalem  conference,  of  course,  had  decided  that 
Jews  might  keep  the  Law.  We  shall  see  later  that  Paul,  when 
in  Jerusalem,  felt  that  it  was  only  fair  when  he  went  into  Jewish 
territory,  that  he  should  keep  the  Law  just  as  he  demanded  of 
Peter  that  he  should  not  keep  the  Law  when  in  Gentle  territory. 
The    only   difficulty   about    applying   this    explanation   to    the 


I08  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

certainly  did  nut  know  where  he  was  going.  He  was 
setting  forth  like  Abraham  of  old,  seeking  for  a  new  land 
as  God  should  show  it  to  him.  The  whole  enterprise 
was  pure  adventure.  Perhaps  this  fact  appealed 
to  the  young  man  Timothy  who  would  undoubtedly 
also  feel  it  an  adventure  in  a  great  cause.7 

Where  did  they  go  when  they  set  forth  into  new  land  ? 
Apparently  Paul  had  thought^  of  going  into  the  Roman 
province  of  Asia,  one  corner  of  which  was  only  thirty 
miles  awa}^  from  Iconium,  but,  Luke  says,  he  was  "  for- 
bidden of  the  Hol}^  Spirit  to  speak  the  word  in  Asia." 
So  he  changed  his  plan  and  went — where  ?^  Here  we 
are  faced  with  one  of  those  difficulties  that  come  from 
the  fact  that  we  are  studying  ancient  documents  written 
in  another  language.  It  is  difficult  to  know  whether 
the  words  translated  in  our  text  as  "  They  went  through 
the  region  of  Phrygia  and  Galatia,"  truly  express 
what  Luke  meant  to  say.  This  translation  would  mean 
that  they  went  through  two  countries  :  first,  Phrygia 
and  then  Galatia.  In  that  case,  Paul  might  now  have 
visited  and  evangelized  the  old  Galatia  whose  chief  cities 


circumcision  of  Timothy  is  that  Timothy  is  not  in  Jewish  territory. 
Still  there  seem  to  be  a  ^ood  many  Jews  there,  since  it  was 
"  because  of  the  Jews  "  that  he  took  action.  Paul  hoped  to 
win  some  of  these  Jews,  too,  and,  in  other  regions  where  they 
might  be  found,  and  did  not  want  the  uncircumcised  Jewish 
Timothy    to    be    a    stumbling    block. 

'  It  looks  as  though  Paul  thought  that  three  was  the  proper 
number  to  start  on  a  missionary  enterprise — two  who  take  the 
chief  responsibility,  perhaps,  and  a  younger  one  to  act  as 
messenger   and    minister. 

^  Acts  xvi.  6.  See  map.  The  following  paragraph  is 
unintelligible  without  one's  eyes  on  the  map. 

^  Acts  xvi.  6.  There  is  some  uncertainty  concerning  the 
translation  here.  Whether  it  was  while  Paul  was  at  Iconium 
that  he  was  forbidden  to  preach  in  Asia,  or  after  he  had  passed 
through  the  Phrygia-Galatia  region,  is  not  clear,  but  probably 
the  reading  in  our  text  is  correct,  that  is,  "  having  been 
forbidden  of  the  Holy  Spirit,"  they  then  went  through  the 
region,  etc. 


FAITH    OF   THE    GOSPEL       TAKEN    INTO    GREECE    lOQ 

were  Pessinus  and  Ancyra.io  But  it  is  much  more  prob- 
able that  the  sentence  ought  to  be  translated,  "  The}^ 
went  through  the  Phrygian  andGalatian  land"  or  "The 
region  of  Phrygia-Galatia."ii  This  would  mean  one 
region  which  could  be  called  both  Phrygian  and  Galatian. 
Now  this  would  be  most  apt  to  be  the  region  in  the  edge 
of  which  Iconium  stood,  which  was  once  part  of  the 
independent  country  of  Phrygia,  but  which  had  now 
been  included  in  the  Roman  province  of  Galatia.  It  is, 
therefore,  probable  that  Paul  did  not  evangelize 
Galatia  at  this  time,  but  that  he  had  to  seek  still  farther 
before  finding  the  new  land  to  which  God  was  leading 
him.  Passing,  then,  west  through  the  already  visited 
Phrygia-Galatia  region, 12  he  finally  struck  into  Asia, 
where  he  was  forbidden  to  preach  and  travelled  north 
until  he  was  "  over  against  Mysia,"!^  possibly  at  Dory- 
laion.     Here  was  Mysia  to  the  west  and  Bithynia  to  the 

^"  This  is,  of  course,  what  the  holders  of  the  "  North  Galatian 
theory  "  say.  They  think  that  Paul  and  Silas  and  Timothy 
went  to  Ancyra,  etc.,  now  and  organized  churches  to  which  Paul 
afterwards  wrote  his  letter  to  the  Galatians.  They  think  that 
it  is  only  accidental  that  Luke  never  mentions  any  churches  in 
that  region.     See  ch.  VIIL,  p.  80. 

^^  See,  however,  Moffatt's  "  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of 
the  New  Testament,"  p.  93,  where  the  writer  says  that  the  words 
"  can  only  mean,^'  "  Phrygia  and  the  region  of  Galatia."  See 
also  Lake's  "  The  Earlier  Epistles  of  Paul,"  p.  257,  where  the 
writer  says  the  phrase  "  can  only  mean  one  thing — the  land 
which  is  Phrygia  and  Galatia,  or  more  shortly  the  Phrygo- 
Galatic  land."  But  Lake's  position  is  more  tenable,  for  if 
Galatia  is  an  adjective,  probably  Phrygia  is  also.  Another 
reason  for  believing  that  a  region  known  as  Phrygia-Galatia  is 
here  referred  to,  is  that  a  reference  to  such  a  region  has  been 
found,  which  reads  as  follows  :  "  These  holy  martyrs  were, 
under  the  Emperor  Diocletian,  in  the  city  of  Antioch  of  Pisidia, 
from  the  region  of  Phrygia-Galatia."  The  part  of  Phrygia  that 
had  not  been  included  in  the  Roman  Galatia  was  also  known  as 
Phrygia- Asiana,  as  is  shown  by  the  following  :  "  Dorylaion, 
which  is  the  last  city  of  Phrygia- Asiana."  See  Lake  "  The 
Earlier  Epistles,"  p.  313. 

^^  He  went  through  Phrygia-Galatia  when  he  went  from 
Antioch  to  Lystra  on  his  first  journey.      See  ch.  VIII . 

1^  Acts  xvi.   7.   8. 


110  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

north — which  way  should  they  go  ?  "  They  essayed  to 
go  into  Bithynia,  and  the  Spirit  of  Jesus  suffered  them 
not  ;  and  passing  by  Mysia,  they  came  down  to  Troas." 
During  all  this  wandering  Paul  was  looking  for  the 
right  place  to  introduce  his  Gospel.  Finally  at  Troas 
he  saw  his  new  land  before  him.  Luke  says  that  he  had 
a  "  vision  "  at  night  in  which  "  There  was  a  man  of 
Macedonia  standing,  beseeching  him  and  saying, 
Come  over  into  Macedonia  and  help  us."i* 

Who  was  this  Macedonian  ?  Why  did  Paul  see  him 
in  a  dream  ?  An  answer  to  these  questions  is  suggested 
in  the  next  sentence  by  the  words,  "  Straightway  z^<?i^ 
sought  to  go  forth  into  Macedonia."  Possibly  the 
Macedonian  man  is  Luke,  or,  perhaps,  a  personification 
of  needy  Macedonia  of  which  Luke  tells  Paul.  At  least, 
Luke  here  joins  Paul  and  travels  to  Macedonia  with 
him  and  remains  there,  as  his  use  of  the  pronoun  "  we  " 
during  that  part  of  his  narrative  shows. ^^  It  is  probable, 
then,  that  Paul  himself  told  Luke,  when  he  met  him  at 
Troas,  about  his  long  search  for  the  right  place  to  begin 
definite  evangelizing  work,  and  that  Luke  urged  him  to 
come  to  Macedonia.  17  This  makes  the  study  of  this 
account  of  Paul's  leading  of  God  of  special  interest. 
Three  different  expressions  have  been  used  to  denote 
this  leading.  They  were  "  forbidden  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  "  to  preach  in  Asia  ;   "  the  Spirit  of  Jesus  suffered 

"  Acts  xvi.  7,  8. 

^^  The  sudden  introduction  of  this  "  we  "  is  one  of  the  most 
curious  features  of  Acts.  For  its  bearing  on  the  authorship  of 
Acts  see  ch.  I.,  p  20. 

^^  That  Luke  himself  was  the  Macedonian  man,  was  first 
suggested  by  Ramsay.  See  "  St.  Paul  the  Traveller  and  Roman 
Citizen,"  p.  iSpff.  Harnack  thinks  that  Luke  here  joined 
Paul,  but  that  he  was  not  the  Macedonian  man.  "  Acts  of 
Apostles,"  pp.  98-100.  Following  a  late  tradition,  Harnack 
thinks  that  Luke  was  a  native  of  Antioch,  rather  than  of 
^lacedonia.  He  does  not  explain  why  none  of  the  "  we 
sections,"  which  he  holds  that  Luke  wrote,  occur  in  connection 
with  Antioch.     See  "  Luke  the  Physician,"  pp.  4,  5. 

^'  This  theory  explains  how  the  author  of  Acts  knew  about 
these  unfulfilled  desires  of  Paul's  to  go  into  Bithynia,  etc. 


F 


FAITH    OF   THE    GOSPEL       TAKEN    INTO    GREECE    III 


them  not  "  to  go  into  Bithynia  ;  "a  vision  appeared 
to  Paul  in  the  night."  Of  course  the  choice  of  words  is, 
no  doubt,  Luke's,  and  yet  it  is  certainly  interesting  to 
note  that  while  Luke  speaks  many  times  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  and  of  visions,  nowhere  else  does  he  speak  of  the 
Spirit  of  Jesus,  while  Paul  several  times  uses  almost  the 
same  expression. i^  Does  it  not  seem  possible,  then,  that 
Luke  has  remembered  at  least  that  phrase  from  Paul's 
own  account  ?  This  means  that  Paul  was,  indeed, 
expecting  to  be  guided  to  the  right  place  for  his  work. 
Just  as  he  had  gone  up  to  Jerusalem  "  by  revelation," 
so  now  he  is  moving  along  step  by  step  under  the 
guidance  of  the  Spirit  of  Jesus.  Can  we  out  of  these 
circumstances  get  an}^  further  light  on  how  the  Spirit 
of  Jesus  led  Paul  ?  One  thing  seems  clear  ;  it  was  not 
by  telling  him  in  some  supernatural  wa}^  exactly  where 
he  was  to  go,  else  he  would  not  have  hunted  about  so 
long,  but  would  have  gone  straight  to  the  place.  It  was 
not,  then,  such  guidance  as  cut  off  the  use  of  Paul's  own 
mind  or  the  evidence  of  circumstances.  We  are  told 
nothing  about  the  circumstances  in  Asia  and  Bithynia, 
but  apparently  it  was  the  meeting  with  Luke  in  Troas  that 
took  Paul  and  his  friends  across  the  ^L^gean  Sea, ' '  corxlud- 
rng,''  says  Luke,  "  that  God  had  called  us  to  preach  the 
gospel  unto  them.''^^  The  little  group  of  workers  had 
talked  it  over  and  concluded  that  this  was  the  leading 
of  God. 

But  v/hy  should  Paul  have  wandered  ' '  so  far  from  his 
goal  ?  "20  Why  did  the  Spirit  of  Jesus  not  lead  him  direct 
to  Philippi  ?  While  one  could  not  presume  to  fully 
answer  such  a  question  even  if  one  knew  all  the  cir- 
cumstances and  much  less  knowing  so  little  about  them, 
still  it  is  worth  noting  that  such  slow  hunting  for  the 

^^  See  Rom.  viii.  9  ;  Gal.  iv.  6  ;  Phil.  i.  19.  Of  course,  Paul 
may  have  spoken  of  the  Holy  spirit  and  of  a  vision  since  he  does 
so  sometimes  in  his  letters. 

^^  Acts  xvi.  10.  We  do  not  know  when  Luke  became  a  Christian 
but  probably  before  this. 

^"  Prof.  Rovce  uses  this  phrase  in  his  study  of  "  The  Problem 
of  Job  "  in  "'studies  of  Good  and  Evil." 


112  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF   PAUL 

right  way  develops  fellowship  with  God,  for  one  learns  to 
discern  the  right,  to  "  think  God's  thoughts  after  Him  " 
or  witli  Him,  whereas  if  one  were  merely  told  what  to  do, 
one  would  not  be  a  fellow-worker.  At  Troas  Paul  was 
probably  urged  by  Luke  to  go  to  Philippi.  Perhaps 
the  character  of  the  city  was  put  before  him,  and  its 
need  of  the  Gospel,  and  probable  readiness  to  receive 
it.  Nevertheless  Paul  was  not  guided  merely  by  the 
open  door  of  which  Luke  probably  assured  him.  He 
waited  at  least  over  night  to  test  that  opportunity  by 
the  Spirit  of  Jesus  within  him.  "Come  over  to  Mace- 
donia and  help  us  "  were  the  words  that  rang  within 
him.  Surely  such  an  opening  was  in  accordance  with 
the  Spirit  of  Jesus,  for  help  was  needed  and  the  help  was 
in  Paul's  hand.  Such  thoughts  brought  Paul  into 
fellowship  with  the  Spirit  of  Jesus,  and  he  probably 
reported  to  Luke  and  the  others  that  he  thought  it  right 
to  go  to  Philippi. 21 

Conscious,  then,  of  the  concurrence  of  the  inner  voice 
and  of  the  evidence  of  circumstances,  Paul  with  his 
companions  Silas  and  Timothy  and  Luke  set  out  across 
the  iEgean  Sea,  touching  at  Samothrace  one  day,  and 
arriving  at  Neapolis  the  next  day. 22  From  the  harbour 
the  city  of  Philippi  could  be  seen  built  on  a  hill  nine 
miles  away.  Founded  by  Philip,  father  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  it  was  situated  on  the  great  Roman  Road 
called  the  Egnatian  Way,  which  was  built  right  across 
the  Roman  province  of  Macedonia  from  Dyrrachium 
through  Thessalonica  and  Philippi,  then  on  up  across  the 
neck  of  land  leading  to   Byzantium  in   Asia   Minor. ^^ 

2^  Perhaps  Paul  heard  these  words  in  a  dream,  but  Luke  is  so 
fond  of  visions  and  dreams  that  one  could  easily  suspect  him  of 
making  an  inner  experience  of  which  Paul  told  him  in  the  morning 
into  a  dream  of  the  night. 

2^  Acts  xvi.  10-12.  The  use  of  the  "  we  "  shows  that  Luke 
was  with  the  party. 

^'  See  map.  Travellers  leaving  Rome  would  travel  on  the 
Appian  Way  through  Brundisium,  then  take  boat  to  Dyrrachium 
and  proceed  on  the  Egnatian  Way  across  Macedonia. 


FAITH    OF   THE    GOSPEL       TAKEN    INTO    GREECE    II3 

This  was  a  favourable  situation  for  a  city,  but  Philippi 
was  hardty  the  "  first  "  city,^*  in  Macedonia,for  there  were 
several  others  more  important.  It  is  probable  that 
Luke  means  the  first  city  in  that  part  of  Macedonia, 
rather  than  in  the  whole  of  the  province.  It  is  true 
as  this  verse  of  Acts  states  that  Philippi  was  a  Roman 
colony. 25  It  was  after  the  battle  of  Philippi  42  B.C., 
where  Brutus  and  his  ideal  of  the  Roman  Republic  died 
and  the  Roman  Empire  was  born,  that  Philippi  was 
made  a  Roman  Colony.  A  company  of  Roman  citizens 
was  settled  here  by  Augustus  with  the  full  rights  of 
Romans  and  the  city  became  thoroughly  Roman. 

In  this  Roman  city  the  Jewish  element  seems  to  have 
been  small,  for  Paul  and  his  companions  go  outside  of 
the  city  to  a  place  of  prayer  b}^  a  river.  There  would 
seem  to  have  been  no  men  present  at  this  memorable 
meeting.  But  Paul  was  not  discouraged  and  "  spake 
unto  the  women  which  were  come  together"  ^6  His 
confidence  in  them  was  rewarded,  for  one  of  them,  at 
least,  responded  to  his  message.  Lydia  was  a  Greek  ; 
she  had  come  from  Thyatira  in  Asia  Minor,  probably 
by  the  same  route  that  Paul  and  his  companions  had 
just  taken  ;  she  seems  to  have  been  a  business  woman, 
a  "  seller  of  purple."  Probably  she  was  the  manager 
of  a  shop  or  bazaar,  and  a  successful  one,  for  she  had  a 
house  at  which  she  could  invite  Paul  and  his  com- 
panions to  make  their  home.  Although  she  was  a  Greek 
she  had  been  attracted  by  the  Jewish  worship  of  the 
One  God  and  had  herself  become  "  one  that  worshipped 
God."  She  seems  to  have  been  an  open-minded  seeker 
for  truth,  and  now  when  Paul  presents  his  new  teaching 
about  Jesus,  the  Christ,  the  manifestation  of  the  glory 
and  love  of  God^^  she  was  ready  to  see  its  truth.   As  Paul 

•^  Acts  xvi.  12. 

-•'  Pliny's  "  Natural  History,"  IV.  18,  speaks  of  the  "  colony 
of  Philippi." 

-•^  Acts  xvi.  13-15. 

27  Phil.  ii.  II. 


114  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

stayed  on  in  Philippi  for  some  time, 28  living  at  the  house 
of  Lydia.  and  going  to  the  place  of  prayer  to  teach,  it 
is  certain  that  others  also  accepted  his  teaching.  Paul 
mentions  two  women,  Euodias  and  Synt^'che  who  there 
laboured  with  him  in  the  Gospel. 29  Some  of  the  converts 
were  certainly  men,  for  "  bretliren  "  are  mentioned  by 
Luke  just  as  Paul  is  leaving  Philippi  and  Paul  himself 
mentions  two  Philippian  men,  Epaphroditus,  who  be- 
comes a  messenger  and  minister  to  Paul,  and  Clement, 
a  "  fellow-worker."30 

The  one  letter  of  Paul's  to  the  Philippians  which  is 
preserved  to  us  was  written  years  later,  but  it  has  a  few 
references  to  his  early  preaching  among  them  which 
show  that  he  felt  that  a  great  work  had  been  well  begun 
at  Philippi,  and  that  he  had,  indeed,  been  guided  to  the 
right  place.  When  in  prison  later  the  memory  of  these 
earlier  days  cheers  him  and  he  wTites  thus  : 

"I  thank  God  upon  all  m}'^  remembrance  of  you,  always 
in  every  supplication  of  mine  on  behalf  of  you  all  making 
my  supplication  with  joy,  for  your  fellowship  in  further- 
ance of  the  gospel  from  the  first  day  until  now  ;  being 
confident  of  this  very  thing,  that  he  which  began  a  good 
work  in  you  will  perfect  it  until  the  day  of  Jesus.^'^^ 

Paul  could  not  have  written  this  if  he  had  not  felt 
that  the  Philippians  had  responded  in  the  true  way  to 
his  message  from  that  "  first  day  "  when  he  came  to 
their  place  of  prayer.  The}'  joined  at  once  in  "  fellow- 
ship "  with    him    for  the    furtherance    of  the    Gospel. 

-^  "  Certian  days  "  of  Acts  xvi.  ii,  must  mean  a  considerable 
period  of  time.     Note  the  "  many  days  "  of  xvi.  i8. 

-'9  PhiL  iv.  2.  It  is  probable  that  the  women  of  Macedonia 
were  allowed  greater  freedom  than  the  women  in  other  parts 
of  the  Roman  Empire.  The  Macedonian  inscriptions  indicate 
that  Vv'omen  took  part  in  active  life.  For  instance,  one  inscrip- 
tion tells  how  a  wife  erects  a  tomb  "  for  herself  and  her  dear 
husband,  out  of  their  common  earnings."  See  Lightfoot's 
"  Philippians,"  p.  56. 

30  Acts  xvi.  40  ;    Phil.  ii.  25  ;    iv.  3,  18. 

:»'   Phil.  i.  3-6. 


''faith    of    the    gospel       taken    into    GREECE    II5 

There  seem  to  have  been  no  enemies  of  Paul's  work 
there,  and  he  and  his  friends  might  have  stayed  as  long 
as  they  liked  had  they  not  accidentally  disturbed  the 
business  of  certain  men.  These  men  were  in  the  business 
of  divining.  They  had  possession  of  a  young  girl 
who  believed  that  she  had  a  spirit  of  divination. ^^  gj-^e 
could  throw  her  voice  in  ventriloquist  fashion,  and 
this  made  both  herself  and  others  believe  that  a  spirit 
was  speaking  through  her,  and  people  were  willing  to 
pay  for  her  oracles  about  their  affairs.  No  doubt  her 
keepers  secured  quite  an  income  in  this  way,  for  prac- 
tically the  whole  world  of  that  day  believed  in  divination. 
For  some  strange  reason  this  girl  followed  Paul  and 
his  companions,  crying  out, 

"  These  men  are  servants  of  the  most  high  God,  which 
proclaim  unto  you  the  way  of  salvation. "^^ 

Perhaps  she  diml}^  felt  that  they  were  of  an  utterly 
different  type  and  better  than  her  keepers.  But  Paul 
was ' '  sore  troubled  "  that  his  work  should  be  commended 
by  this  prophetess  of  the  heathen  oracle.  At  last,  he 
turned,  as  she  was  following  him,  and  commanded  the 
spirit  to  come  out  of  her.^^     Here  faith  in  Paul  as  a  man 

^-  The  actual  Greek  words  here  are  "  a  spirit  of  Python." 
Python  was  the  serpent  which,  according  to  the  legend,  was 
slain  by  Apollo.  It  was  supposed  to  be  the  spirit  of  this  python 
that  gave  oracles  at  Delphi,  and  the  prophetess  who  received  the 
oracle  was  called  Pythia.  From  this  the  word  came  to  be  used 
for  anyone  who  gave  oracles.  It  seems  that  in  the  first  century 
it  meant,  especially,  a  prophetess  who  pronounced  her  words  in 
ventriloquist  fashion.  This  manner,  of  course,  made  it  easier 
to  believe  that  it  was  the  voice  of  the  spirit  speaking  through  the 
prophetess.  Plutarch  says,  "  The  voice  and  language  of  the 
Pythia  we  demand  to  be  presented  to  us  as  though  from  off  the 
stage,"  Plutarch's  JMorals,  King's  translation,  p.  163.  The  same 
idea  of  the  manifestation  of  a  divining  spirit  is  found  in  the 
Greek  translation  of  the  Old  Testament,  where  Saul  sa^^s  of  the 
witch  of  Endor,  "  Send  me  a  woman  that  is  a  ventriloquist." 
I  Sam.  xxviii.  7.     Same  use  in  Lev.  xix.  31  ;   xx,  6,  27. 

^^  Acts  xvi.  17.  Probably  this  is  Puke's  first-hand  report, 
since  he  is  in  Philippi  with  Paul. 

^^  Acts  xvi.  18. 


Il6  THK    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

of  God  showed  itself  in  the  failure  of  her  ventriloquist 
power  ;  she  no  longer  gave  her  oracles  after  these  words 
from  Paul.  It  is  not  stated  whether  she  became  a 
Christian  or  not,  but  perhaps  she  joined  Lydia  and 
the  other  Christian  women  of  Philippi. 

But  the  girl's  keepers  were  angr}^  and  they  "  laid 
hold  on  Paul  and  Silas  and  dragged  them  into  the  market 
place  before  the  rulers"  of  the  city.^'^  They  made  two 
charges  against  them  :  first,  that  they  were  disturbers 
of  the  peace,  and  second,  that  they  taught  something 
not  suitable  for  Romans  to  receive. ^^  Paul  might  have 
saved  himself  from  indignities  if  he  had  declared  his 
Roman  citizenship,  but  instead  he  and  Silas  were  beaten 
and  cast  into  prison^^  with  their  feet  fastened  in  the 
stocks,  where  they  remained  praying  and  singing  till  they 
were  released  by  an  earthquake  at  midnight. ^^  How 
the  jailor  was  about  to  kill  himself,  thinking  that  his 
prisoners  had  escaped,  how  Paul  assured  him  that  all 
were  safe,^^  j-^qw  the  jailor  cried  out,  "  Sirs,  what  must 
I  do  to  be  saved  ?  "  and  was  "  baptized  he  and  all  his 
immediately  "*<^  is  graphically  told  by  Luke.     The  next 

^^  Acts  xvi.  19,  20.  The  rulers  in  Philippi  were  called 
"  praetors."     See  Lightfoot's  "  Philippians,"  p.  51. 

'■^^  Probably  this  was  "  Jesus  is  Messiah,"  which  was  inter- 
preted as  "  Jesus  is  King,"  which  would  be  treason  against  the 
emperor. 

^^  The  "  we  sections  "  stop  here,  so  Luke  was  not  in  prison, 
but  since  he  was  in  the  city  knew  about  the  event. 

3**  Of  course  we  do  not  know  just  how  an  earthquake  coz/W  free 
everybody  in  a  prison.  We  do  not  know  exactly  how  the  prisor 
was  arranged.  Ramsay  says  that  it  was  like  the  poorly-buill 
Turkish  prisons  of  to-day,  and  that  earthquakes  could  easil} 
have  "  forced  the  door-posts  apart  from  each  other,  so  that  tht 
bar  slipped  from  its  hold  and  the  door  swung  open."  He  tells 
of  seeing  just  such  things  done  by  earthquakes  in  that  country. 
— "  St.  Paul  the  Traveller  and  Roman  Citizen,"  p.  22. 

^^  One  wonders  how  Paul  knew  the  jailor  was  about  to  kill 
himself,  and  that  none  of  the  prisoners  had  escaped.  Ramsay 
says  that  he  could  probably  see  the  jailer  by  the  one  door,  and 
knew  that  no  prisoners  had  passed  out  that  door. 

*^  What  kind  of  baptism  could  take  place  immediately  in  the 
prison  ? 


''faith   of   the    gospel'^    taken    into    GREECE    II7 

morning  the  magistrates  apparently  wish  to  get  rid  of 
these  men  secretly,  but  Paul  refuses  to  leave  in  any  such 
ignoble  fashion,  and  at  last,  announcing  that  he  and 
Silas  are  Roman  citizens,  compels  the  magistrates  to 
come  and  publicly  bring  them  forth  from  the  prison. 
However,  Paul  seems  to  have  thought  it  best  to  leave 
Philippi  as  the  magistrates  requested,  and,  after  a  brief 
visit  to  the  "  brethren  "  at  the  house  of  Lydia,  they 
departed  from  the  place  where  they  had  been  "  shame- 
fully treated."*! 

But  Paul  left  behind  a  company  of  "saints in  Christ 
Jesus "  "at  Philippi  "*2  ^ho  were  "  lights  in  the 
world."*^  He  knew  that  he  "  had  not  run  in  vain, 
neither  laboured  in  vain  "**  since  he  was  leaving  a 
fellowship  which  abounded  in  love  and  knowledge  and 
discernment*^  where  each  one  looked  not  to  "  his  own 
things  "  but  "  also  to  the  things  of  others."*^  He  knew 
that  he  could  depend  on  them  to  do  the  things  that  they 
had  "  learned  and  received  and  heard  "  and  seen*^  from 
him  when  with  them  ;  he  knew  that  they  had  become 
living  Christians  who  were  not  dependent  on  him,  but 
were  capable  of  working  out  their  "  own  salvation  "  ;*8 
he  knew  that  they  also  were  "  holding  forth  the  word 
of  life  "*9  to  others,  yet  Paul  left  them  with  sorrow 
because  he  had  given  his  heart  to  these   "brethren 

*^   I  Thess.  ii.  2. 

^2  Phil.  i.    I. 

«  Phil.   ii.   15. 
Phil.  ii.   16. 

^•'  Phil.  i.  9.  Of  the  individuals  who  made  up  this  fellowship 
we  know  of  Lydia  and  possibly  the  ventriloquist  girl,  and  the 
jailor  and  his  household  mentioned  in  Acts.  Those  mentioned 
in  Paul's  Philippian  letter  are  Euodia  and  Syntyche,  fellow- 
labourers  ;  Epaphroditus,  "brother,"  "fellow-worker,"  and 
"  fellow-soldier  "  ;  Clement,  "  fellow-worker,"  and  whoever  is 
meant  by   "  true  yoke-fellow  "   in  Phil.   iv.    3. 

■»«  Phil.  ii.  4. 

^'   Phil.  iv.  9. 

•*''  Phil.  ii.   12,   13.  • 

^9  Phil.  ii.   16. 


Il8  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF   PAUL 

beloved."^"  "  I  have  you  in  my  heart, "^^  he  afterwards 
wrote  them,  and  thoy  certainly  returned  Paul's  love 
for  the}'  later  showed  their  fellowship  with  him  1)\ 
ministering  to  his  needs. -^^  They  were  the  joy  "  and 
crown  "''■'^  to  which  the  "  S])irit  of  Jesus  "^*  had  led 
Paul.  In  Philippi  he  had  received  "  a  hundredfold  "" 
"  with  persecutions."^^     Into  the  living  channels  of  a 

new  continent  had  been   put   the  living  "  faith  of  the 
gospel. "50 


•'■'  Phil  iv.   I. 

^i  Phil.  i.  7. 

">'-  Phil.  iv.   15;     2  Cor.  xi.  9.     See  ch.  XII..  p.    121. 

^2  Phil.  iv.   I. 

^  Acts  xvi.  7. 

*^  Mk.  X.   30. 

56  Phil.  i.  27. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE     "     GOSPEL    OF    GOD  "     INTRODUCED    INTO 
THESSALONICA 

"  Having  suffered  before  and  been  shamefully  treated, 
as  ye  know,  at  Phiiippi,  we  waxed  bold  in  our  God  to 
speak  unto  you  the  gospel  of  God  in  much  conflict. "i 

Thus  writes  Paul  of  his  departure  from  Phiiippi 
and  entrance  into  Thessalonica.  Timothy  had  appar- 
ently^ not  been  in  prison  in  Phiiippi,  but  he  certainly 
comes  on  with  Paul  and  Silas  to  the  work  in  this  new 
city  for  Paul's  letter  to  the  Thessalonians  names 
Sylvanus^  and  Timothy,  and  says  : 

"  Yourselves,  brethren,  know^  our  entering  in  unto  you 
that  it  hath  not  been  found  vain."^ 

Probably  on  foot,  on  the  Egnatian  Way,  Paul,  Silas 
and  Timothy  pass  by  Amphipolis  and  Apollonia  and 
travel  to  Thessalonica.*  What  kind  of  city  is  this 
which  these  bringers  of  a  new  religion  are  entering  ? 
Strabo  tells  how  the  city's  name  was  given  in  honour  of 
the  daughter  of  Philip  of  Macedon  who  had  named  her 
Thessalonica  because  he  conquered  the  Thessalians  on 
the  day  of  her  birth. ^     That,  of  course,  was  over  300  years 

^  I  Thess.  ii.  2. 

^  Sylvanus  seems  to  be  Paul's  name  for  Silas.  Though  Acts 
does  not  mention  Timothy  at  Thessalonica,  yet  it  does  at 
Beroea.      Acts.  xvii.  14. 

^  I  Thess.  ii.   i. 

*  Acts  xvii.   I. 

^  Strabo,  Fragment  21,  vol.  I.,  p.  509.  Thessalonica  means 
victory  over  the  Thessalians. 

ri9 


120  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

before  Paul's  day,  but  during  that  time  it  had  become 
"  the  metropohs  of  the  present  Macedonia"  as  Strabo 
described  it. 

Unlike  Roman  Philippi.  Thessalonica  had  remained 
a  Greek  city.  It  had  been  made  a  free  city,  which 
means  that' it  ruled  itself  instead  of  having  Roman 
rulers  sent  to  it.^  The  Greek  rulers  were  called  Polilarchs 
as  Luke  tells  us,  and  as  recently  found  inscriptions 
confirm.^  In  one  inscription  which  was  on  an  arch 
dating  from  Paul's  day  and  which  stood  in  Thessalonica 
until  recently  over  the  western  entrance  on  the  Egnatian 
way  there  are  six  politarchs  named,  also  a  city  treasurer 
and  a  "  gymnasiarch,"  who  would  perhaps  have  charge 
of  the  schools.  The  oldest  building  now  in  Thessalonica 
is  a  mosque  which  was  once  a  temple  of  Venus  and  later 
a  Christian  Church.  In  the  entrance  of  these  three 
disciples  of  Jesus  we  see  the  force  that  produced  the 
Christian  Church.^ 

As  at  Philippi,  so  here  Paul  finds  the  Jewish  synagogue 
the  door  of  entrance  to  the  people,  but  he  seems  to  have 
interested  Greeks  rather  than  Jews,  for  his  letter  to  the 
Thessalonian  Christians  addresses  them  as  though  they 
were  all  Greeks  who  had  been  idolators  : 

"  Ye  turned  unto  God  from  idols  to  serve  a  living  and 
true  God."9 

This  means  that  Paul  spoke  his  message  not  only  to 
the  "  devout  Greeks  "  who  went  to  the  synagogue,  but 
the  devotees  of  the  temple  of  Venus.     Did  the  Jews 

^  A  number  of  coins  read,  "  Thessalonica  the  Free." 

'  Acts  xvii.  6,  8.  The  Greek  word  translated  "  rulers  "  is 
politarchs.  See  Burton's  "  The  Politarchs,"  "  Amer.  Jour,  ol 
Theology,"  II.,  1898.  Or  Hastings,  Diet,  of  Bib.,  Article  "  Rulers 
of  the  City." 

8  The  present  city  is  called  Saloniki,  or  Salonik  or  Salonika 
It  has  150,000  inhabitants,  90,000  Spanish  Jews.  They  seni 
troops  to  the  recent  revolution  in  Turkey  and  received  the  Sultar 
when  he  abdicated.     There  are  still  many  Greeks  living  in  the  city 

»  I  Thess  i.  9.  Acts  xvii.  4  also  indicates  that  the  largesi 
number  of  converts  were  "  devout  Greeks." 


GOSPEL        INTRODUCED    INTO    THESSALONICA     121 

turn  him  out  and  did  Paul  continue  his  work  after  the 
three  weeks  which  Luke  mentionsio  perhaps  in  the  house 
of  Jason  ?  This  seems  probable  since  he  seems  to  have 
been  there  long  enough  to  set  up  business  in  his  trade 
of  tent-making,  for  he  says  : 

"  Ye  remember,  brethren,  our  labour  and  travail' — 
working  night  and  day,  that  we  might  not  burden  any 
of  you,  we  preached  unto  you  the  gospel  of  God."ii 

Preaching  and  tent-making  seemed  to  go  together  well 
for  Paul.  He  preferred  to  earn  his  own  living,  though, 
as  he  sa^'s,  we  "  might  have  been  burdensome  as  apostles 
of  Christ. "12  This  sounds  as  though  Silas  and  Timothy 
worked  with  him.  It  certainly  implies  that  they,  too, 
did  not  receive  help  from  the  people  to  whom  they 
preached.  Only  one  exception  was  made  ;  they 
accepted  help  twice  from  their  friends,  the  Philippians. 
This,  too,  makes  it  probable  that  they  were  in  Thessa- 
lonica  more  than  three  weeks.  Paul  himself  speaks  of 
it  thus  : 

"  Ye  yourselves  know,  ye  Philippians,  that  in  the 
beginning  of  the  gospel  ...  no  church  had  fellow- 
ship with  me  in  the  matter  of  giving  and  receiving,  but 
ye  only  ;  for  even  in  Thessalonica  ye  sent  once  and  again 
unto  my  need.''^^ 

This  shows  that  it  was  not  easy  for  Paul  to  live  up  to 
this  ideal  of  his  by  which  he  hoped  to  prove  that  he 
preached  the  Gospel  out  of  pure  love.  He  had  "  need," 
but  he  worked  "  night  and  day  "  that  he  might  live  up 
to  his  ideal  of  speaking  "  not  as  pleasing  men  but  God." 
No  doubt  he  found  himself  rewarded  by  the  new  friends 
it  brought  him,  for  the  fact  that  he  was  a  worker  would 
also  interest  many  of  the  manual  workers  of  the  com- 
munity. Apparently  those  who  became  Christians  in 
Thessalonica  were  many  of  them  hand  workers,  for  Paul 

^°  Acts  xvii.  2. 

^   I  Thess.  ii.  g. 

^^  I  Thess  ii.  6. 

12  Phil.  iv.  15,  16.     Compare  2  Cor.  xi.  9  and  Phil.  iv.  14. 


122  THE    LIFK    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

"  charged  "  them,  saying,  *'  Do  your  own  business  " 
and  "  work  with  your  hands,"  and  later,  when  they 
needed  it,  wrote  and  reminded  them  of  this  teaching. i"* 
Sucli  words  would  be  received  with  grace  from  a  man 
who  knew  what  hard  manual  labour  meant.  So 
earnestly  and  joyously  did  Paul  labour  "  night  and  day," 
that  he  might  give  the  "  gospel  of  God  "  to  these 
working  people,  that  he  afterwards  said  of  this  time  : 

"  We  were  well  pleased  to  impart  unto  you  not  the 
gospel  of  God  only,  but  also  our  own  souls,  because 
ye  were  become  very  dear  to  us."i=' 

Such  devotion  insured  that  no  one  should  accuse 
him  of  speaking  his  "  exhortation  "  "  in  guile,"  "  using 
words  of  flattery,"  nor  "  seeking  glor^^  of  men."!^ 
So  entirely  above  reproach  did  he  live  that  he  could 
write  : 

"  Ye  are  witnesses,  and  God  also,  how  holily  and 
righteously  and  unblameably  we  behaved  ourselves 
toward  you  that  believe  ;  as  ye  know  how  we  dealt 
with  each  one  of  you,  as  a  father  with  his  own  children, 
exhorting  you,  and  encouraging  3'ou,  and  testif3'ing, 
to  the  end  that  ye  should  walk  worthily  of  God,  who 
calleth  you  into  his  own  Kingdom  and  glory. "^"^ 

With  such  a  life  before  them  and  such  careful  and 
devoted  work  being  done  for  them,  no  wonder  that  the 
Thessalonians  received  the  "  word  of  the  message  " 
not  "  in  word  only,  but  also  in  power  "  ;  no  wonder 
that  they  "  accepted  it  not  as  the  word  of  men,  but,  as 
it  is  in  truth,  the  word  of  God  "  ;i8  no  wonder  that  they 
became  imitators  of   Paul  "and   of  the   Lord "  ;^^  no 


^'  I  Thess.  iv.   11. 

^^  I  Thess.  ii.   8. 

^'^  I  Thess.  ii.   ^-6. 

"  I  Thess.  ii.   10-12. 

"  I  Thess.  ii.   13. 

^^  I  Thess.  i.  6. 


"  GOSPEL  "    INTRODUCED    INTO   THESSALONICA      123 

wonder  that  Paul's  labour  "  was  not  in  vain. "20 
Who  could  resist  such  a  union  of  joy,  work  and  love  ? 

Apparently  one  thing  that  Paul  taught  at  Thessa- 
lonica  was  the  Parousia  or  Coming  of  the  Lord  Jesus. 21 

"Ye  turned  unto  God,"  he  says,  "to  wait  for  his 
Son  from  heaven  whom  he  raised  from  the  dead,  even 
Jesus,  which  delivereth  us  from  the  wrath  to  come. "22 

On  the  road  to  Damascus  when  God  revealed  His 
Son  in  him,  Paul  was  entirely  convinced  that  Jesus 
Hved  ;  we  have  seen  that  ever  since  that  time  he  has 
believed  that  Jesus  is  Messiah  ;  we  have  seen  that  he 
has  felt  the  power  of  the  Christ-life  within  him,  but 
now  for  the  first  time  we  see  that  he  is  expecting  Jesus 
to  return  as  Messiah  on  the  clouds. 23  It  reminds  us 
at  once  of  the  teaching  which  Paul  had  when  a  young 
Pharisee  in  Jerusalem, 2*  and  makes  it  clear  that  Paul 
has  not  forgotten  his  teaching.  The  word  Messiah 
had  then  meant  to  Paul,  he  who  will  appear  and 
introduce  the  new  era,  and  when  he  was  convinced 
that  Jesus  was  this  One  he  supposed,  of  course,  that  his 
Parousia  would  take  place  sometime  soon.  If  Paul 
taught  this  in  Thessalonica  he  must  have  believed  it 
from  the  first,  because  it  was  such  a  well-known 
Pharisaic  idea,  and,  no  doubt,  was  held  by  Peter  and 
other  early  disciples.  Indeed,  it  was  so  entirely 
famiUar  that  it  probably  did  not  occupy  Paul's 
thought  so  much  as  the  conception  which  was 
entirely   new    to  him,   namely,  that  Jesus,  the   Risen 

^°  I  Thess.  ii.   i ;   iii.  5. 

^^  I  Thess.  ii.   19  ;    iii.  13. 

^2  I  Thess.  i.  10.  It  is  somewhat  strange  that  Paul  doeS 
lot  call  Jesus  the  Son  of  Man,  especially  when  speaking  of  his 
:oming,  since  Jewish  literature  and  the  Gospels  speak  thus 
)f  the  Coming  Messiah.  Perhaps  Paul  discarded  it  because  it 
vould  have  no  meaning  to  Gentiles;  Paul  uses  "  Son  of  God," 
md  "  Lord,"  the  later  having  wide  use  ia  the  Roman  Empire 
o  denote  mastery  and  superiority,  as  well  as  Old  Testament 
:onnections. 

^  I  Thess.  iv.  16,    17. 

^  See  chap.  III.,  pp.  38-41. 


124  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

One,  the  Indwelling  One,  the  One  who  abolishes 
the  Law  and  introduces  faith  and  love — he  is 
the  Messiah.  Still  we  see  here  that  Paul  had  not 
discarded  the  Pharisaic  idea  of  the  wonderful  Parousia 
of  the  Messiah,  and  that  it  took  strong  hold  of  the  minds 
of  some  of  the  Greeks  who  heard  him  preach  to  whom  it 
would  be  newer. 25 

But  the  Jews  were  angered  by  Paul's  teaching  that 
Jesus  is  the  Messiah,  and  by  his  success  among  the 
"  chief  women  "  and  the  "  devout  Greeks.''^^  There- 
fore, they  hired  ruffians  from  the  streets  to  help  them 
assault  the  house  of  Jason  to  bring  Paul  and  his  friends 
out  to  the  mob.  When  the^^  made  the  assault  they 
failed  to  find  Paul,  and  instead  "  dragged  Jason  and 
several  brethren  "  forth.  Was  Jason  skilful  and  mag- 
nanimous enough  to  get  Paul  away,  and  take  the  rough 
treatment  himself  ?  Dragged  before  the  Politarchs  he 
found  himself  accused  of  harbouring  revolutionists — 
"  these  that  have  turned  the  world  upside  down";  and 
traitors — those  who  "  act  contrary  to  the  decrees  of 
Caesar,  saying  there  is  another  King,  one  Jesus. '"27 
These  were  serious  charges,  indeed,  the  charge  of  traitor  | 

"  This  word  Paroz/sm  was  a  common  one  in  a  Greek  city  like 
Thessalonica.     When  a  King  or  Emperor  was  about  to  visit  a 
city  the  people  were  told  to  prepare  for  his  "  Parousia."     For 
instance,  on  one  occasion  people  were  told  '"  to  expect  earnestly 
the  Parousia  of   Antiochus,"   and   there  is  a  reference  to  the 
Parousia  of  a  God — "  and  Asclepius  manifested  his  Parousia." 
When    Augustus   visited    Corinth    Parousia   coins  were   struck.  H 
So  when  Paul  talked  to  the  people  about  the  Coming  of  Jesus,  4 
it  would  not  seem  strange  to  them.     For  these  references,  and  for 
further  study  of  the  word,  see  Deissman's  "  Light  from  the  East," 
pp.   372-378.     One  example  he  gives  is  a  papyrus  from  Egypt 
about  113  B.C.,  which  reads,  "  And  applying  ourselves  diligently,  i; 
both  night  and  day,  unto  fulfilling  that  which  was  set  before  us  |^ 
and  the  provision  of  80  artabal  which  was    imposed    for    the 
parousia  of  the  King."     A  later  inscription  reads — "  in  the  year 
69  of  the  first  parousia  of  the  God  Hadrian  in  Greece."     See  also  ^ 
Milligaa  "  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians,"  p.  145  ff. 

2*  Acts  xvii.   3,  4. 

"  Acts  xvii.   5,  6,  7. 


GOSPEL        INTRODUCED   INTO   THESSALONICA     1 25 

was  the  same  that  brought  death'to  Jesus  and  to  Stephen. 
But  the  PoHtarchs  probably  knew  that  it  was  not 
hterally  true,  and  they  pronounced  the  minhnum 
sentence — ■"  security  from  Jason,"  that  is,  assurance 
that  there  should  be  no  more  disturbance. 28  But 
how  could  one  be  sure  that  there  would  be  no 
more  commotion  so  long  as  Paul  was  present  ?  So  "  the 
brethren  immediately  sent  away  Paul,  and  Silas  (and 
Timothy  ?)  by  night  unto  Beroea."29  it  is  to  this 
persecution  of  the  Jews,  which  doubtless  had  been 
going  on  for  some  time  before  it  drove  Paul  out  of  the 
city,  that  he  refers  in  his  letter  : 

"  Ye  received  the  word  in  much  affliction,  with  joy 
of  the  Holy  Ghost."30 

Paul  suddenly  finds  himself  separated  again  from 
those  whom  he  loves.  He  had  been  as  "  gentle  in  the 
midst  "  of  them  "  as  when  a  nurse  cherishes  her  own 
children, "31  nevertheless  he  is  compelled  to  be  "  be- 
reaved of"  them  "in  presence,"  though  "not  in 
heart. "32  But  one  splendid  thing  about  Paul's  work 
is  that  he  does  not  make  those  whom  he  helps  dependent 
on  himself.  They  are  closely  bound  to  him,  indeed, 
but  they  have  not  accepted  his  Gospel  on  his  "  word 
only,  but  also  in  power,  and  in  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  in 
much  assurance. "33  They  themselves  have  seen  the 
reasons  ;  they  themselves  have  known  of  the  power 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  within  them.     They  have  become 

-^  Acts  xvii.   8,  9. 

^^  Acts  xvii.   10. 

^°  I  Thess.  i.  6. 

^^   I  Thess.  ii.  7. 

^^  I  Thess.  ii.  17.  Paul  does  not  mention  the  names  of  any  who 
made  up  this  Thessalonian  brotherhood,  but  Luke  speaks  of 
"  Aristarchus  and  Secundus  "  as  Thessalonians. — Acts  xx.  4. 
He  speaks  also  of  a  certain  Gaius  as  a  Macedonian  and 
associates  him  with  Aristarchus.  Hence  Gaius  may  possibly  be 
.  a  Thessalonian. — Acts  xix.  29 

I  Thess.  i.  5. 


126  THE    LIFE    AND   MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

"sons  of  light  and  sons  of  the  day."^*  Paul  calls  them 
all  "  brethren  beloved, "^^  thus  indicating  that  they 
arc  sharers  with  him  in  the  life  of  the  s})irit.  How  he 
rejoices  in  them  the  following  words  show  : 

"  For  what  is  our  hope,  or  joy,  or  crown,  or  glorying  ? 
Are  not  even  ye  before  our  Lord  Jesus  at  his  coming  ? 
For  ye  are  our  glory  and  our  joy."^^ 


^*  I  Thess.  V.  5. 

3'  The  term  "  brother  "  was  one  which  the  early  Christians 
naturally  adopted. — Acts  ii.  29,  ly,  etc.  It  was  used  as  the 
address  for  the  members  of  different  sorts  of  societies.  See 
Milligan's  "  Thessalonians,"  p.  8.  It  was,  no  doubt,  used  by 
Paul  and  others  because  it  just  suited  the  relation  of  fellowship  in 
which  they  found  themselves.     See  Mk.  iii.  34. 

3*  I  Thess  ii.   19,  20. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

PAUL  PROCLAIMS  THE  RISEN  CHRIST  IX  ATHENS 

To  the  city  of  Beroea  which  "  lies  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Bermius,"!  an  "  out-of-the-way  town,"^  Paul  and 
Silas  and  probably  Timothy  went.  Luke  says  they 
found  the  people  "  more  noble  than  those  of  Thessa- 
lonica "  because  they  "  received  the  word  with  all 
readiness  of  mind,  examining  the  Scripture  daily 
whether  these  things  were  so."^ 

It  is,  perhaps,  while  here  at  Beroea  that  Paul  goes 
over  into  the  region  of  Illyricum  lying  to  the  north-west, 
for  later  he  says  he  had  preached  ''  round  about  even 
unto  Illyricum."*  But  again  his  successful  work  is 
stopped  by  enemies,  this  time  by  imported  enemies — 
the  Jews  from  Thessalonica.  And  again  "  immediately 
the  brethren  sent  forth  Paul."  They  seemed  to  want 
to  make  sure  that  he  got  far  enough  away  this  time  to 
be  out  of  the  reach  of  these  enemies,  for  when  they 
reached  the  sea,  that  is,  Dium,  "  they  that  conducted 
Paul  "  took  ship  with  him  and  "  brought  him  as  far  as 
Athens."  Apparently  these  conductors  of  Paul  went 
straight  back  to  Beroea  and  Paul  sent  by  them  "  a 
commandment  unto  Silas  and  Timothy  that  they  should 
come  to   him  with  all  speed. "^     Of  this  we  have  no 

p.   ^  Strabo  I.,  p.  511.     Fragment  26. 

2  Cicero,  In  Piso,  36. 

3  Acts  XVII.   10-13. 

^  Rom.  XV.  19.  There  is  no  other  reference  in  Paul's  letters 
to  work  in  Beroea  or  vicinity,  except  when  he  is  "  Macedonia  " 
making  the  collection  for  Jerusalem.  See  ch.  XVIII.,  p.  200. 
Illyricum  was  approximately  the  territory  along  the  Adriatic 
now  known  as  Bosnia,  Montenegro  and  Albania. 

^  Acts  xvii.  14,  15. 

12^ 


12S  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF   PAUL 

account  from  Paul  himself  but  we  do  know  that  Timothy, 
at  least,  joined  hin/'  for  Paul  writes  to  the  Thessalonians" 

"  We  brethren,  being  bereaved  of  you  for  a  short 
time,  in  presence,  not  in  heart,  endeavoured  the  more 
exceedingly  to  see  your  face  with  great  desire  ;  because 
we  would  have  fain  come  up  unto  you,  I,  Paul  once  and 
again  ;  and  Satan  hindered  us.  .  .  Wherefore  when 
we  could  no  longer  forbear,  we  thought  it  good  to  be 
left  behind  at  Athens  alone  ;  and  sent  Timothy,  our 
brother  and  God's  minister  in  the  gospel  of  Christ,  to 
establish  you,  and  to  comfort  you  concerning  your  faith ; 
that  no  man  be  moved  by  these  afflictions.  .  .  For  this 
cause  I  also,  when  I  could  no  longer  forbear,  sent  that  I 
might  know  your  faith,  lest  by  any  means  the  tempter 
had  tempted  you  and  our  labour  should  be  in  vain."^ 

Paul's  heart  is  back  m  Macedonia  ;  he  longs  for  the 
fellowship  of  the  Christians  there  ;  he  wants  to  return 
to  Thessalonica  but  "  Satan  hinders  him,"  by  which 
he  probably  means  the  persecution  by  the  Jews^  there, 
which,  his  words  indicate,  he  thinks  is  still  going  on. 
Finally  he  determines  to  send  Timothy  to  help  them 
"  lest  by  any  means  the  tempter  had  tempted  "  them, 
although  it  means  that  Paul  has  to  be  left  behind  alone, 
which  he  evidently  does  not  like.  Paul  was  a  worker ; 
he  did  not  like  idleness,  and  he  liked  companionship. 
Probably  Silas  had  also  come  to  Athens  as  Paul  had 
requested  and  had  been  sent  off  on  a  similar  errand  to 
Philippi,  for  later  when  the  two  join  Paul  at  Corinth 
probably  it  is  Silas  who  brings  the  money  from  Philippi^ 

*  Luke  probably  did  not  know  that  Timothy  did  join  Paul 
in  Athens,  for  Acts  xvii.  i6  ;  xviii.  i,  gives  the  impression  that 
Paul  waited  awhile  for  Timothy  and  Silas,  and  finally  went  on  to 
Corinth  without  them.  Probably  Luke  knew  that  Paul  was  alone 
when  he  made  his  speech  and  supposed  that  Timothy  and  Silas 
had  not  come  at  all. 

'  I  Thess.  ii.  17,  18  ;   iii.  1-5. 

^  Since  Paul  in  the  above  passage  calls  the  "  afflictions  " 
"  the  tempter,"  he  could  certainly  refer  to  the  whole  persecution 
that  had  driven  him  out  as  "  Satan." 

^  2  Cor.  xi.  9  ;     Phil.  iv.    15 


PAUL    PROCLAIMS    THE    RISEN    CHRIST   IN    ATHENS    1 29 

since  it  is  Timothy  who  brings  messages  from  Thessa- 
lonica."^^ 

Here,  then,  is  Paul  in  the  heart  of  Greece  unexpectedly, 
alone  and  longing  to  be  in  Macedonia. ^  >s' evertheless, 
he  cannot  be  oblivious  to  the  fact  that  he  is  at  the  in- 
tellectual centre  of  the  world,  and  he  cannot  help 
being  interested  in  the  buildings,  statues  and  altars  that 
are  an  expression  of  the  inner  life  of  the  people. 
Visitors  may  yet  see  the  ruins  of  some  of  the  things  that 
Paul  must  have  seen  in  Athens.  Let  us  look  at  some 
of  these  things.  There  is  the  great,  ancient,  out-door 
theatre  of  Dionysus,  built  into  the  south  slope  of  the 
Acropolis.  12  Would  Paul,  perhaps,  have  gone  to  see  a 
play  by  Aeschylus  ?  Certainly  he  could  there  see  one 
of  the  ways  in  which  the  Athenian  people  thought  about 
some  of  the  great  problems  of  life.^^  There  is  the 
recently  rebuilt  stadium,  which  was  the  scene  of    the 

^^  2  Cor.  xi.  9  ;     i  Thess.  iii.  6. 

^  Of  course,  Paul  may  have  delivered  the  sermon  while  he  was 
alone  before  Silas  and  Timothy  joined  him,  but  it  seems  more 
likely  that  he  would  leave  Athens  soon  after  the  address  that 
had  so  little  success. 

_  12  This  is  the  most  ancient  theatre  in  the  world.  It  was  here 
that,  in  the  fifth  century  B.C.,  the  drama  developed  out  of  the 
religious  rites  used  in  the  worship  of  the  god  Dionysus.  In  Paul's 
day  Nero  built  a  new  stage  to  the  theatre. 

^^  There  is  an  inscription  at  Miletus  in  the  fifth  row  from  the 
front  of  the  theatre,  which  reads  : 

"  Place  of  the  Jews,  who  are  also  called  God-fearing." 
Philo,  the  Alexandrian  Jew,  certainly  went  to  the  theatre,  for 
he  writes.  : 

"  At  all  events  I  have  before  now  seen  at  the  theatre,  v/hen 
I  have  been  there,  some  persons  so  influenced  by  a  melody  of 
those  who  were  exhibiting  on  the  stage,  whether  dramatists  or 
musicians,  as  to  be  excited  and  to  join  in  the  music,  uttering 
encomiums  without  intending  it ;  and  I  have  seen  others  at  the 
same  time  so  unmoved  that  you  would  think  there  was  not  the 
least  difference  between  them  and  the  inanimate  seats  on  which 
they  were  sitting,  and  others  so  disgusted  that  they  have  even 
gone  away  and  quitted  the  spectacle,  stopping  their  ears  with 
their  hands,  lest  some  atom  of  a  sound,  being  left  behind  and  still 
sounding  in  them,  should  afflict  annoyance  on  their  morose 'and 
unpleasable  souls." — Philo — English  translation  by  Yonge, 
vol.  I.,  ch.  XLIII.,  p.  489. 


130  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

Panathcnaic  games.  Certainly  Paul  may  have  gone  to 
this,  for  he  often  draws  illustrations  from  games.  There 
is  the  exquisitely  wrought  monument  of  Lysikrates,  who 
once  won  the  tripod  in  the  games  of  the  festival  of 
Dionysus.  There  is  the  "  Tower  of  the  Winds  "  which 
accommodated  a  water-clock,  a  sun-dial  and  a  weather- 
vane.  It  is  decorated  with  figures  of  the  winds,  the 
north  wind  being  "  a  cross-looking  old  man  in  a  heavy 
cloak,"  while  the  other  winds  are  as  suitably  represented. 
Did  Paul  perhaps  get  the  time  of  day  from  this  tower 
in  the  Roman  market-place  ?  There  is  the  platform  of 
the  Pnyx  where  once  the  democratic  Ecclesia  of  the 
Athenians  met  and  made  its  laws  and  where  orators 
brought  their  causes  before  the  Athenian  people.  There 
is  the  recently  excavated  street  of  tombs  that  led  out  of 
the  Greek  market-place.  There  is  the  splendidly 
preserved  Theseum,  which  was  probably  dedicated  to 
Hephaestus,  the  divine  smith  who  was  worshipped  by 
artisans,  especially  metal-workers.  There  are  the  ruins 
of  the  Asclepieum,  a  temple  to  Asclepius,  the  god  of 
healing.  People  came  and  stayed  all  night  in  the  temple, 
and  sometimes  were  cured  of  their  disease  by  morning.  ^"^ 
There  are  standing  several  columns  of  the  colossal 
temple  to  Olympian  Zeus.  This  temple  might  specially 
interest  Paul  because  much  of  it  w^as  built  by  that 
Syrian  ruler,  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  who  had  conducted 
such  terrible  persecutions  in  Jerusalem  with  the  hope 
of  inducing  the  Jews  to  accept  Greek  religion  and  culture. 
In  fact,  everywhere  one  looked  there  were  temples  and 
altars  to  various  gods  and,  standing  up  in  splendour 
above  them  all,  were  the  temples  of  the  Acropolis,  the 
chief  of  which  was  the  Parthenon,  adorned  with 
marvellous  sculptures^^  and  enclosing  the  colossal 
statue  of  Athena  the  goddess  of  wisdom.     Among  these 

^*  Aristophanes,  in  his  "  Phitus,"  tells  of  a  blind  man  who 
received  his  sight  through  a  visit  to  Asclepius. 

^5  Lord  Elgin  took  some  of  these  sculptures  to  England,  and  the 
people  of  England  paid  for  them.  So  a  visitor  to  the  British 
Museum  to-day  can  see  what  Paul  must  have  seen.  See 
"  Elgin  Room  "  of  British  Museum. 


PAUL    PROCLAIMS   THE    RISEN    CHRIST   IN    ATHENS   I3I 

temples  walked  Paul,  who  knew  himself  to  be  a  temple 
of  God. 

Luke's^^  account  of  Paul  in  Athens  tells  us  that  "  his 
spirit  was  provoked  within  him,  as  he  beheld  the  city  full 
of  idols."  Although  he  apparently  had  not  thought  of 
working  here  more  than  to  reason  with  the  "  Jews  and 
devout  persons  "  in  the  S3magogue,  yet  all  these  temples 
and  images  stirred  up  his  spirit  to  make  his  contribution  to 
these  people  who  were  so  evidently  interested  in  religion. 
Therefore,  he  adopted  the  method  of  the  Athenian 
people,  and  went  into  the  Agora,  or  market-place,  to  talk 
with  those  he  met  just  as  Socrates  had  done.  Athens 
contained  a  university,  indeed,  it  had  been  the  model  for 
Tarsus  and  other  university  centres.  The  "  strangers  " 
referred  to  in  Acts^^  are,  of  course,  the  students  who  came 
from  all  over  the  Roman  Empire ;  the  Stoic  and  Epicurean 
philosophers  were  some  of  the  lecturers.  The  Epicureans 
were  sometimes  called  the  "  Garden  Philosophers " 
because  their  lectures  were  given  in  the  garden  of 
Epicurus  ;  the  Stoics  frequented  the  Painted  Porch 
in  the  Agora  and  it  was  here  in  the  mxarket-place  that  the 
students  heard  the  informal  debates  which  occurred 
when  philosophers  of  different  schools  met.  Into  this 
universit}^  circle  came  Paul  with  his  Gospel,  and  the 
philosophers  "  encountered  him  "  just  as  they  did  each 
other.  But  they  saw  that  he  did  not  bear  the  usual 
university  stamp,  so  they  called  him  a  "  babbler  "  or  a 
"  hanger-on  "  or  a  "  picker-up-of-learning's-crumbs."i8 

He  seemed  to  be  a  setter-forth  of  strange  gods,  they  said, 
when  he  spoke  of  Jesus  and  the  Resurrection. ^^    Then 

1^  Since  Paul  so  distinctly  tells  us  that  he  was  left  "  alone  in 
Athens,"  it  is  a  problem  how  Luke  got  the  report  about  it,  but 
Paul  himself  may  have  told  him  the  chief  points. 

"  Acts  xvii.  21. 

1'^  Acts  xvii.  18.  This  word  is  apparently  some  of  the  university 
slang  of  the  time,  so  it  is  hard  to  know  exactly  the  sense  in 
which  it  was  used.  See  Ramsay  "  St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  42, 
for  fuller  discussion. 

^*  Apparently  they  so  far  misunderstood  Paul  as  to  think  he 
was  talking  about  a  god  named  Resurrection. 


13-^  lili:    l-IFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

they  laid  hold  upon  him,  and  brouglit  liim  unto  or 
before  the  Areopagus.  Now  there  is  a  rocky  hill  called 
the  Areopagus,  rising  abruptly  above  the  site  of  the 
ancient  market-place.  The  ancient  court  of  the  Areo- 
pagus^o  sometimes  met  on  the  rock,  and  sometimes  in  the 
King's  Porch  in  the  Agora.  Did  these  philosophers 
and  students  take  Paul  to  this  rock  for  a  quiet  talk, 
or  did  they  take  him  to  the  court  to  \5e  tried  ?  The 
charge  of  bringing  in  new  gods  was  that  upon  which 
Socrates  was  condemned  to  death  before  the  Areopagus 
court,  years  before,  but  it  seems  hardly  possible  that  it 
could  any  longer  be  a  crime  in  Athens  where  it  was  now 
"  easier  to  find  a  god  than  a  man."  Furthermore,  the 
rest  of  the  scene  does  not  seem  like  a  trial.  There  is  no 
charge  and  Paul's  speech  is  not  a  defence.  Hence  it 
does  not  seem  possible  that  Paul  was  taken  to  the  court 
for  trial,  as  a  violator  of  Athenian  law.  It  is  prob- 
able, however,  that  this  court  had  some  jurisdiction  over 
the  lectures  of  the  Agora.  Certainly  anyone  could 
appear  there  and  speak,  but  if  he  continued  daily  and 
attracted  students  he  would  become  a  part  of  the 
university.  Probably  the  court  had  a  right  to  say  who 
should  continue  as  teachers  of  the  youth  of  Athens.^^' 
Was  Paul  taken  before  the  court  to  be  examined  as  a 
lecturer  ?     This  seems  the  most  probable  conclusion. 

^^  The  meaning  of  the  word  Areopagus  is  unknown.  It  has  been 
supposed  to  be  connected  with  the  god  Ares  or  Mars  and  has, 
therefore,  been  translated  Mars  Hill.  But  Mars  has  never  been 
worshipped  here,  whereas  the  Furies  have  from  ancient  times 
been  thought  to  live  in  a  cleft  of  the  rock.  Perhaps  the  name 
Areopagus  was  connected  with  the  curses  (Arae)  which  they 
were  thought  to  pronounce  upon  wrong-doers.  The  court  of  the 
Areopagus  was  connected  with  the  belief  in  the  Furies  especially 
in  its  judgment  of  murder  cases.  In  various  periods  of  Greek 
history  this  court  seems  to  have  dealt  with  many  other  matters 
also,  especially  religious  and  educational.  See  Art.  Areopagus 
in  Ency.   Brit. 

^"^  The  evidence  that  the  court  did  have  jurisdiction  over 
education  is  as  follows  : 

The  Stoic  philosopher,  Cleanthes,  who  was  famous,  among 
other  things,  for  having  earned  his  living  in  rather  unique  ways 
in  Athens  (see  ch.   VI.,   p.   68),  and  some   of  whose  poetry  Paul 


PAUL    PROCLAIMS    THE    RISEN    CHRIST   IN    ATHENS  133 

It  certainly  looks  as  though  Luke  were  thinking  of  the 
Court  rather  than  the  hill  when  he  says,  "  And  Paul 
stood  in  the  midst  of  the  Areopagus  "21  and  this  seems 
the  only  possible  reason  for  the  court  to  hear  him.  Paul, 
then,  makes  this  speech  to  some  of  the  officials  of  Athens, 
philosophers,  students  and  such  others,  perhaps,  as 
chose  to  come  into  the  "  King's  Porch  "  in  the  Agora  or 
possibly  up  to  the  top  of  the  Areopagus  rock.21^  Luke's 
report  of  Paul's  "speech"22  begins  thus  : 

"  Ye  men  of  Athens,  in  all  things  I  perceive  that  ye 

certainly  knows,  was  also  brought  before  the  Areopagus  once 
Diogenes  Laertes  tells  about  it  thus  : 

"  They  also  say  that  on  one  occasion  he  was  brought  before  a 
court  of  justice,  to  be  compelled  to  give  an  account  of  what  his 
sources  of  income  were  from  which  he  maintained  himself  in  such 
good  condition  ;  and  that  then  he  was  acquitted,  having 
produced  as  his  witness  the  gardener,  in  whose  garden  he  drew 
the  water,  and  a  woman  who  was  a  meal-seller,  in  whose  establish- 
ment he  used  to  prepare  the  meal.  And  the  judges  of  the  Areo- 
pagus admired  him,  and  voted  that  ten  minae  should  be  given 
to  him  ;  but  Zeno  forbade  him  to  accept  them." — Diogenes 
Laertius,   "  Lives  of  the  Philosophers,"  translation  by  Yonge, 

p.  324-  .  ^    ^ 

Plutarch  in  his  life  of  Cicero,  also  gives  an  mstance  of  the 
Areopagus'  dealing  with  the  affairs  of  the  university.  He  says  : 
"  He  obtained  of  Caesar,  when  in  power,  the  Roman  Citizenship 
for  Cratippus,  the  Peripatetic,  and  got  the  court  of  Areopagus, 
by  public  degree,  to  request  his  stay  at  Athens,  for  the  instruction 
of  their  youth,  and  the  honour  of  their  city." — Plutarch's  Cicero, 
p.  2-4. 

21  Acts  xvii.  22.  .  • 

21'  It  is  certain  that  the  Areopagus  held  all  murder  trials  out 
in  the  open  air  on  top  of  the  Areopagus.  It  is  possible  that  they 
dealt  with  some  other  matters  there  also.  Paul,  then,  might 
possibly  have  made  his  speech  on  the  rock  in  the  midst  of  the 
court.  But  it  is  more  probable  that  educational  matters  were 
dealt  with  in  the  meeting-place  of  the  court  in  the  Agora — 
the  "  King's  Porch."  What  may  be  the  foundations  of  this 
porch  have  recently  been  excavated  by  Dorpfeld. 

^^  Of  course  it  cannot  be  supposed  that  Luke  had  a  verbatim 
account  of  Paul's  speech,  but  Paul  himself  may  have  told  Luke 
how  he  approached  these  Greek  philosophers.  In  that  case,  he 
may  have  told  him  the  substance  of  his  opening  words,  with 
his  reference  to  the  altar  to  an  unknown  god,  the  quotation  from 


134  THE    LIFE   AND   MINISTRY    OF   PAUL 

are  very  religious. 23  For  as  I  passed  along,  and  observed 
the  objects  of  your  worship,  I  found  also  an  altar  with 
this  inscription. 

To    AN    UNKNOWN    G0D."2* 

A  traveller  to  Athens  a  few  years  after  Paul  also 
noted  this  religious  interest,  for  he  said  of  the  Athenians, 
"  These  people  indeed  are  not  only  remarkable  for  their 
philosophy,  but  excel  other  nations  in  piety  to  the 
gods  "  ;25  he  also  mentioned  among  many  other  altars 
those  of  "  so-called  unknown  gods."26  But  Paul  can 
not  be  a  mere  observer  like  Pausanias.  Paul  has  a  word 
to  say  to  this  religious  people.  He  whom  they  "  worship 
in  ignorance  "  he  sets  forth  as  "  the  God  that  made  the 
world  and  all  things  therein."  He  points  out  that  this 
One  God  "  has  made  of  one  all  the  nations  of  the  earth." 
Paul  must  know  that  these  words  will  not  sound  strange 
at  all  to  most  of  his  audience.  In  spite  of  the  many 
altars,    the    philosophers   certainly    and  probably  the 

one  of  their  poets  and  their  attitude  to  his  mention  of  the 
resurrection.  See  McGiffert,  "  Apostolic  Age,"  pp.  256-260, 
who  thinks  Luke  had  a  document  telling  about  Athens.  But 
the  points  he  emphasizes  prove  that  Luke  had  information,  not 
necessarily  a  document. 

^^  Acts  xvii.  22,  23.  This  is  the  translation  of  the  American 
Revision.  The  words  "  very  religious  "  are  certainly  much 
better  than  "  somewhat  superstitious,"  for  while  the  word  can 
have  either  meaning,  Paul  would  certainly  not  have  antagonized 
his  hearers  by  calling  them  superstitious,  and  Luke  was  too 
skilful  to  represent  him  as  doing  so. 

^*  There  has  recently  been  found,  at  Pergamon,  in  north-west 
Asia  Minor,  an  altar  which  is  somewhat  broken,  but  probably 
reads  thus  : 

"  To  the  Unknown  Gods 
Capiton 
Torchcarrier." 

Evidently  some  one  named  Capiton  who  has  taken  part  in  a 
religious  procession,  has  had  some  cause  for  setting  up  a  tablet 
to  the  Unknown  Gods.  For  an  excellent  picture  of  this  altar, 
see  Deissman's  "  St.  Paul,"  p.  262. 

^^  Pausanius.     Des.  of  Greece,  I.,  xvii.  i. 

2^  Pausanius,  L,  i.  4. 


PAUL   PROCLAIMS   THE    RISEN   CHRIST   IN    ATHENS   1 35 

members  of  the  court,  and  some  of  the  students  would 
agree  with  him  that  there  really  was  but  One  God  behind 
all  his  manifestations.  It  was  only  the  ignorant  rabble 
that  still  thought  of  many  gods.  Paul  indicates  his 
agreement  with  his  listeners  in  the  belief  in  the  One  God 
and  Father  by  citing  one  of  their  poets  : 

"  For  we  are  all  his  offspring." 

These  words  came  from  the  hymn  of  Cleanthes,  the 
Stoic  philosopher,  of  whom  Paul  probably  learned  in 
Tarsus,  and  whose  poetry  would  certainly  be  familiar 
to  most  of  Paul's  audience.  The  passage  shows  a  high 
idea  of  God  : 

"  O  God,  most  glorious,  called  by  many  a  name. 

Nature's  great  King,  through  endless  years  the  same  ; 
Omnipotence,  who  by  thy  just  decree 
Controllest  all,  hail  Zeus,  for  unto  thee 
Behoves  thy  creatures  in  all  lands  to  call. 
We  are  thy  children,  we  alone,  of  all 

On  earth's  broad  ways  that  wander  to  and  fro. 
Bearing  thy  image  wheresoe'er  we  go, 
Wherefore  with   songs  of  praise  thy  power  I  will  forth 
show.  "2' 

That  the  Epicureans  also  thought  of  a  God  is  shown  by 
the   following  words  from  Epicurus,    their  founder  : 

"  First  believe  that  God  is  a  being  blessed  and  im- 
mortal,  according  to  the  notion  of  a  God  commonly 

"  Translation  of  Dr.  James  Adams.  Quoted  by  Hicks — '"Stoics 
and  Epicureans,"  p.  14. 

Aratus,  a  poet  of  Soli,  also  uses  the  same  words  in  the  following 
connection  : 

"  Let  us  begin  with  Zeus,  the  power  we  mortals  never  leave 
Unsaluted.     Zeus  fills  all  the  city  streets. 
All  the  nations'  crowded  marts  ;    fills  the  watery  deeps, 
And  heavens  :    every  labour  needs  the  help  of  Zeus. 
His  children  are  we.     He,  benignant. 
Raises  high  signals,  summoning  man  to  toil. 
And  warning  him  of  life's  demands." 
— "  The  Skies  and  Forecasts  of  Aratus,"  translated  by  E.  Poste. 
Paul  may  have  been  quoting  Aratus,  but  the  hymn  of  Cleanthes 
would  be  much  more  widely  known. 


1^6  Tin-     I.n-K    AM)    MIMSTKV    OF    PAUL 

held  amongst  men  ;  and  so  believing  thou  shalt  not 
affirm  of  him  aught  that  is  contrary  to  immortality  and 
that  agrees  not  with  blessedness.''^^ 

What,  then,  was  it  that  stirred  up  Paul  to  give  a 
message  to  these  philosophers  and  students  ?  Two 
things  Luke's  account  indicates  :  first,  the  inconsistency 
of  their  "  idols."  If  they  believed  in  One  God  why 
should  they  have  idols?  "Being,  then,  the  offspring 
of  God,  we  ought  not  to  think  that  the  God-head  is 
like  unto  gold  or  silver."^^  Nor  should  he  be  "  served 
by  men's  hands  as  though  he  needed  anything,  seeing 
he  himself  giveth  to  all  life  and  breath. "so 

Second,  their  ignorance  about  God.  The  nearness,^! 
the  love,  the  helpfulness  of  God,  especiall}^  as  shown  in 
the  risen  Jesus,  was  what  Paul  wanted  to  tell  these 
Athenians,  for  it  w^as  just  at  this  point  that  the  help  of 
the  philosophers  failed.  They  had  little  to  say  about 
how  one  could  find  this  eternal  God.  The  Stoic  did 
believe  that  God  manifested  himself  in  the  Logos  or 
\\'ord,  but  only  a  few  were  able  to  hear  this  Word. 
Cleanthes  speaks  thus  of  "  the  universal  Word  that 
flows  through  all  "  : 

"  One  Word  through  all  things  everlastingly. 

One  Word — whose  voice,  alas  !    the  -wicked  spurn  ; 

Insatiate  for  the  good  their  spirits  yearn  ; 

Yet  seeing  see  not,  neither  hearing  hear 

God's  universal  law,  which  those  revere, 

By  reason  guided,  happiness  to  win. 

The  rest,  unreasoning,  diverse  shapes  of  sin 

Self-prompted  follow  :    for  an  idle  name 

Vainly  they  wrestle  in  the  lists  of  fame  : 

Others  inordinately  Riches  woo, 

Or  dissolute,  the  joys  of  flesh  pur.sue. 

Now  here,  now  there  they  wander,  fruitless  still; 

Forever  seeking  good  and  finding  ill." 


2*  From  the  letter  of  Epicurus  to  Menoeceus,  Epicurea,  p.  59. 
Quoted  by  Hicks,  "Stoics  and  Epicureans,"  p.  167. 
^^  Acts  xvii.   29. 
^'^  Acts  xvii.  25. 
^^  Acts  xvii.   27,   28 


¥ 


PAUL  PROCLAIMS  THE    RISEN    CHRIST   IN    ATHENS      I37 

This  "  Universal  Word  "  of  "  God's  universal  law," 
as  set  forth  by  the  Stoics  is  probably  in  Paul's  mind  when 
he  savs  later  that  Gentiles  "  show  the  work  of  the  law 
written  in  their  hearts  "^2  and  "  that  which  may  be 
known  of  God  is  manifest  in  them."^^  But  he  realizes 
that  for  most  people  this  has  not  availed  even  to  give 
the  knowledge  that  there  is  One  God. 

"  They  became  vain  in   their  reasonings  and  their 

senseless  heart  was  darkened.     Professing    themselves 

to  be  wise  they  became  fools,  and  changed  the  glory  of 

the  incorruptible  God  for  the  likeness  of  an  image  of 

corruptible  man."^*     The  thought  of  Cleanthes  is  almost 

parallel : 

"  The  rest,  unreasoning,  diverse  shapes  of  sin 
Self  prompted  follow  ;     .     .     . 

Forever  seeking  good  and  finding  ill." 

That  the  Epicureans  had  no  way  of  finding  God  is 
shown  by  one  of  their  poets,  who  says  : 

''  For  the  nature  of  gods  must  ever  in  itself  of  necessity 
enjoy  immortality  together  with  supreme  repose,  far 
removed  and  withdrawn  from  our  concerns  ;  since 
exempt  from  every  pain,  exempt  from  all  dangers, 
strong  in  its  own  resources,  not  wanting  aught  of  us, 
it  is  neither  gained  by  favours  nor  moved  by  anger. "^^ 

In  place  of  this  distance  from  God  and  failure  to  find 
him  Paul  has  Good  News,  "  a  power  of  God  unto 
salvation  "^^  to  everyone  that  has  faith.  He  knows  that 
a  new  era  has  dawned  when  the  nearness  to  God  is 
proved  by  his  revelation  in  Jesus  Christ  "  who  was 
declared  to  be  the  Son  of  God  with  power,  according  to 

^2  Rom.  ii.   15. 

^^  Rom.  i.   19. 

^*  Rom.  i.  2-23.  It  is  in  this  later  letter  to  the  Romans  that 
F^aul  most  definitely  states  his  thought  about  the  religion  of  the 
Gentiles  and  the  relation  of  his  Gospel  to  it. 

^^  Lucretius  II.,  646,  p.  290,  Hicks,  "Stoics  and  Epicureans." 

^^  Rom.  i.   16. 


138  THE  LIFE  AND  MINISTRY  OF   PAUL 

the  spirit  of  holiness,  by  the  resurrection  of  the  dead. "3" 
But  when  Paul  spoke  of  tlie  resurrection  the  Athenians 
mocked.  It  is  interesting,  however,  that  Dionysius, 
one^of  the  members  of  the  Areopagite  court,  is  said  to 
have  been  convinced,  as  also  one  woman,  Damaris.*'* 
But  Paul  does  not  seem  to  feel  encouraged  b\'  the  situa- 
tion in  Athens  ;  whether  he  was  told  by  the  Areopagite 
court  not  to  lecture  in  the  market-place  or  whether  he 
felt  that  it  was  no  use  speaking  to  people  who  did  not 
seem  to  be  seeking  truth  to  put  into  practice  in  life,  but 
only  cared  to  hear  some  new  thing  each  day^^  to  argue 
about,  we  have  no  information,  but  at  any  rate  Paul 
left  Athens  and  went  to  Corinth,  perhaps  going  by  boat 
from  Piraeus,  the  harbour  of  Athens,  to  Cenchreae 
and  walking  across  the  Corinthian  isthmus. 


*'  Rom.  i.  4  ;    Acts  xvii.   30,   31. 
'8  Acts  xvii.   32,   33. 
*'  Acts  xvii.   21. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  THESSALONIANS  SAVED   FROM    OTHER-WORLDLINESS. 

"  Two-sea'd  Corinth  "  lay  at  the  foot  of  a  "  lofty  per- 
pendicular mountain,"!  known  as  the  Acrocorinthus. 
From  the  top  of  this  mountain  is  one  of  the  most 
magnificent  views  in  Greece.  A  large  number  of  the 
places  important  in  Greek  history  lie  under  one's  eye 
and  at  their  centre,  Corinth.  The  city  had  been  almost 
completely  destroyed,  a  century- and-a-half  before  Paul's 
day,2  but  had  re-established  itself  because  of  its  unique 
position.  Situated  on  the  narrow  isthmus  uniting  the 
two  chief  sections  of  Greece,  all  travellers  from  north 
to  south  must  pass  through  Corinth  ;  travellers  by 
ship  between  Rome  and  the  East  also  preferred  to 
come  to  one  of  the  two  harbours  of  Corinth  and 
transfer  their  cargo  across  the  nine  miles  of  the  isthmus 
rather  than  risk  shipwreck  in  going  around  the 
south  of  Greece. 2^  The  cunning  Corinthians  exacted 
toll  from  all  who  imported  goods  by  land  or  sea,  and 
thus  made  the  cit}"  wealthy.  The  Isthmian  games  also 
brought  great  numbers  of  people  to  Corinth  and  many 
artists  came,  for  here  "  flourished  painting  and  model- 
ling and  every  art  of  this  kind."^  Corinth  rather  than 
Athens  was  the  commercial  centre  of  Greece.  It  was 
a  city  full  of  Roman  enterprise,  although  the  mass  of 
the  people  were  Greek. 

1  Strabo  VIII.,  vi.  21. 

2  Destroyed  by  the  Roman  Consul,  Mummius,  in  146  B.C. 

*'  It  is  about  nine  miles  across  from  Corinth  to  Cenchreae  but 
the  narrowest  part  of  the  isthmus  where  the  modern  canal  has 
been  cut  is  four-and-a-half  miles. 

^  Strabo  VIII.,  vi.  20  and  23. 

139 


140  TIIH    LIFK    AND    MINISTKV   OF    PAUL 

When  Paul  entered  this  busy  thriving  city  witli  its 
marble  decorated  market-place  and  fine  bazaars,  he  came 
as  a  humble  working-man.  He  looked  about  for  a  chance 
to  work  at  his  tent-making  and  "  he  found  a  certain 
Jew  named  Aquila,  a  man  of  Pontus'*  by  race  lately 
come  from  Italy,  with  his  wife  Priscilla,  because  Claudius 
had  commanded  all  the  Jews  to  depart  from  Rome, 
and  Paul  "came  unto  them;  and  because  they  were  of 
the  same  trade  he  abode  with  them,  and  they  wrought  ; 
for  by  their  trade  they  were  tent-makers. "^ 

Here,  then,  is  Paul  working  side  by  side  with  a  Jew. 
How  long  was  it  before  Aquila  discovered  that  he  had 
taken  into  his  shop  a  man  who  was  active  with  his  mind 
and  spirit  as  well  as  with  his  hands  ?  When  did  he 
discover  that  this  fellow  tent-maker  had  ideas  that 
were  of  the  greatest  interest  ?  How  many  talks  they 
must  have  then  had  about  Jesus,  the  Messiah,  as  they 
worked  together  cutting  out  and  sewing  up  the  heavy 
tent-cloth.  And  in  the  evening,  in  the  home,  Priscilla, 
the  Roman^  wife  of  Aquila,  probabl}^  became  as  deeply 
interested  as  her  husband  and  soon  instead  of  one 
Christian  in  Corinth  there  were  three,  two  tent-makers 
and  a  woman. 7  Could  they  affect  the  wealthy  wicked 
city  of  Corinth  ? 

Here  Paul's  messengers  from  his  loved  Macedonian 
churches  find  him  at  his  tent-making  and  bring  their 

*  In  North  Asia  Minor. 

^  Acts  xviii.  2,  3.  Claudius  drove  Jews  from  Rome  in  50  a.d. 
Suetonius  "  Claudius,"  25,  says,  that  the  expulsion  was  "  due 
to  the  action  of  Chrestus,"  which  seems  to  imply  that  Christ  was 
wrongly  thought  to  be  still  living.  This  came,  no  doubt,  from 
the  use  of  the  name  Christian. 

^  Priscilla  is  the  diminutive  of  Prisca.  Perhaps  she  was 
a  little  lady.  The  name  is  Roman.  Perhaps  she  belonged  to 
a  distinguished  Roman  family.  Paul  always  speaks  of  her  as 
Prisca. 

'  It  is  strange  that  Luke  does  not  say  that  Aquila  and  Priscilla 
became  Christians  at  this  time,  and  it  is  just  as  strange  that  he' 
does  not  mention  it  if  they  Avere  Christians  already.  In  i  Cor. 
xvi.  15,  Paul  calls  Stephanas,  the  "  first-fruits  of  Achaia,"  but  he 
is  probably  referring  to  his  later  work  with  the  Greek  residents. 


THE   THESSALONIANS    AND    OTHER-WORLDLINESS     I41 

messages  and  help.  Paul  speaks  of  this  when  writing 
to  the  Corinthians  later : 

"  When  I  was  present  with  you  and  was  in  want,  I 
was  not  a  burden  on  any  man,  for  the  brethren,  when 
they  came  from  Macedonia,  supplied  the  measure  of  my 
want  ;  and  in  everything  I  kept  myself  from  being 
burdensome  unto  you.''^ 

Paul's  tent-making,  it  seems,  had  not  kept  him  from 
being  "  in  want."  Perhaps  Aquila  had  not  been  long 
enough  in  Corinth  to  have  business  yet  well  established. 
Nevertheless,  Paul  did  not  allow  himself  to  be  a  burden 
on  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  but  he  was  happy  to  receive 
the  gift  which  Silas  must  have  brought  from  Philippi.^ 
But  certainly  as  grateful  as  the  money  from  Philippi  were 
the  messages,  and  perhaps  a  letter  from  Thessalonica. 
It  is  quite  evident  that  Paul  had  not  yet  begun  an  active 
campaign  in  Corinth  ;  he  had  come  to  Corinth  only  to 
wait  for  news  from  Macedonia  which  might  allow  him 
to  return  there.  He  thinks  he  is  deprived  of  his 
Macedonian  friends  "  for  a  short  season  "  only,  and  is 
praying, 

"  Now  may  our  God  and  Father  himself,  and  our  Lord 
Jesus,  direct  our  way  unto  you."io 

Thus  he  writes  in  reply  to  the  message  sent  to  him 
through  Timothy  and  describes  the  receipt  of  that 
message  thus  : 

"  But  when  Timothy  came  even  now  unto  us  from 
you,  and  brought  us  glad  tidings  of  your  faith  and  love, 
and  that  ye  have  good  remembrance  of  us  always, 
longing  to  see  us,  even  as  we  also  to  see  you;  for  this 
cause,  brethren,  we  were  comforted  over  you  in  all  our 
distress  and  affliction  through  your  faith  ;  for  now  we 
live,  if  ye  stand  fast  in  the  Lord."ii 

As  Paul  had  worked  away  making  tents  with  Aquila 
in  Corinth  he  had  been  in  distress  lest  the  faith  of  the 

^  2  Cor.  xi.  9. 

^  Phil.  iv.  15.     See  ch.  XIT.,  p.  128,   129. 
^^  I  Thess.  ii.   17  ;    iii.    11.  11  i  Thess.  iii.  6-8. 


142  THi:    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

Thessalonians  might  have  failed.  Now  Hfe  and  joy 
return  to  him  with  the  good  news  which  Timothy 
brings,  though  he  still  is  "  night  and  day  praying  exceed- 
ingly "  that  he  may  see  their  faces,  and  "  perfect  that 
which  is  lacking  "  in  their  faith. 12 

But  Timothy's  report  was  not  all  good,  for  he  said 
that  there  had  been  great  persecution.  It  seemed  that 
the  Thessalonian  brothers  had  suffered  as  much  as  the 
churches  in  Judaea. 1^  This  meant  that  Paul  could  not 
go  back  to  them  yet  for  that  would  only  make  matters 
worse  for  them.  "  Satan  "i*  still  hinders  him  from 
returning  to  his  beloved  Thessalonians,  but  he  can  at 
least  write  them  a  letter.  This  he  does  probably  at  once. 
This  letter  we  have  and  from  it  can  learn  of  the  problems 
of  the  Thessalonian  community  since  Paul  left  them, 
and  how  he  dealt  with  them  by  letter. 1^ 

After  Greetirgs'^^  to  the  Church  (ecclesia)  from  himself 
and  Timothy  and  Silvanus  (Silas),  and  Thanksgivirg 
for  their  "  work  'of  faith  "  and  labour  of  love  and 
patience  of  hope  "  ;i7  after  rejoicing  that  in  spite  of 
persecution  they  have  so  lived  that  they  have  become 
"  an  ensample  unto  all  that  belie\/e,  in  Macedonia  and 
Achaia,"  indeed,  so  lived  that  their  "  faith  to  Godward  " 
has  "  gone  forth  "  "in  every  place  "  ;i8  after  many 
reminiscences  of  his  work  among  them  and  expressions 
of  love,  Paul  writes  : 

"  Finally,  then,  brethren,  we  beseech  and  exhort  you 
in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  that,  as  ye  received  of  us  how 

^-   I  Thess.  iii.  9,    10. 

^^  I  Thess.  ii.   14-16. 

"  I  Thess.  ii.   18. 

^^  This  is,  of  course,  our  i  Thessalonians,  from  which  we  have 
already  taken  evidence  for  Paul's  early  work  among  them,  for 
the  sending  of  Timothy  from  Athens,  etc.  Now  we  will  study 
the  parts  that  tell  of  their  condition  since  Paul  left  them. 

^^  For  the  form  of  Paul's  letters  see  ch.  I.  Ecclesia  was  the 
common  word  for  assembly. 

^^  I  Thess.  i.   3. 

1^  I  Thess.  i.  7,  8  ;  iv.  10. 


THE    THESSALONIANS    AND    OTHER- WORLDLINESS    I43 

ye  ought  to  walk  and  to  please  God,  even  as  ye  do  walk, 
that  he  abound  more  and  more.''^^ 

Thus  he  sums  up  his  approval  of  their  life,  yet  he  has 
a  certain  warning  to  utter.  Timoth^^  has  reported  some- 
thing which  makes  Paul  wish  to  remind  the  Thessa- 
lonians  of  the  standards  of  absolute  purity,  that  is,  of 
"  sanctification  "  which,  when  he  was  present,  he  had 
held  up  before  them. 

"  For  God  has  called  us  not  for  uncleanness,"  he 
writes,   "  but  in  sanctification. "^o 

There  are  various  indications  in  this  Thessalonian 
letter  that  Paul  is  not  only  writing  things  like  this  warn- 
ing against  impurity  that  have  probably  been  suggested 
by  Timothy's  report,  but  also  that  he  is  replying  to  a 
letter,  now  lost,  brought  from  the  Thessalonians.  Note, 
for  instance,  how  Paul  says,  "  And  for  this  cause  we  also 
thank  God  without  ceasing. "21  implying  that  he  is 
echoing  something  that  they  said  in  their  letter.  Especi- 
ally does  Paul  introduce  subjects  in  the  latter  part  of 
this  letter  in  a  way  that  suggests  that  they  had  asked 
him  about  them,  probably  in  a  letter.  For  instance, 
"  We  would  not  have  you  ignorant,  brethren,  concerning 
them  that  fall  asleep  "  implies  that  they  had  asked  for 
knowledge  about  their  part  in  the  events  of  the  end  of 
the   age.22    Indeed,    it   would   seem   that   their   chief 

"  I  Thess.  iv.   i. 

2»  I  Thess.  iv.  2-8.  21  j  Thess.  ii.   13. 

2^  Dr.  Rendel  Harris  has  made  a  clever  reconstruction  of 
this  lost  letter  from  the  Thessalonians  to  Paul.  He,  of  course, 
takes  his  evidence  entirely  from  hints  in  the  letter  which  we 
possess.     His  reconstruction  is  as  follows  : 

"  The  church  of  the  Thessalonians,  to  the  beloved  Paul, 
greeting.  We  give  thanks  to  God  on  thy  behalf  continually 
(ii.  13),  and  have  an  unceasing  remembrance  of  thee  in  our 
prayers  (iii.  6),  desiring  earnestly  to  see  thy  face.  For  thy 
entrance  to  us  has  not  been  in  vain  (ii.  i),  but  thou  has  spoken  to 
us  the  words  of  God  in  truth,  without  flattery  and  without 
covetousness  (ii.  5),  and  we  remember  thy  labour  and  thy 
toil  on  our  behalf  (ii.  9). 

"  And  we  have  turned  from  the  worship  of  dead  idols  to  serve 
a  true  and  living  God,  and  wait  for  the  return  of  His  Son  from 


144  Tin*    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

inquiries  were  relative  to  that  subject.  When  in 
Thessalonica  Paul  had  told  them  about  the  Parousia  or 
Coming  of  Jesus  to  usher  in  the  new  era,'^-^  and  some  had 
become  so  excited  that  they  had  given  up  their  work. 2* 
They  wanted,  therefore  to  know  from  Paul  more  "  con- 
cerning the  times  and  seasons. "25     Paul  replies  : 

"  Yourselves  know  perfectly  that  the  day  of  the  Lord 
so  Cometh  as  a  thief  in  the  night." 

No  doubt  Paul  is  referring  to  what  he  had  told  them 
about  the  sudden  Parousia  of  Jesus,  but  also,  perhaps, 
to  their  knowledge  of  one  of  Jesus'  brief  parables  about 
the  Master  of  the  house  returning  suddenly  as  a  thief 
in  the  night  even  as  the  Son  of  Man  will  return. ^6  But 
though  Paul  thus  reaffirms  his  belief  in  the  sudden 
Coming  of  Jesus,  he  points  out  that  this  should  give 
no  cause  for  alarm  to  disciples. 

"  For,"  he  savs,  "  ve  are  all  sons  of  the  light  and  sons 
of  the  day."27  ^ 

The  hope  that  Jesus  is  soon  to  return  ought  to  make 
them  live  up  to  their  highest  ideals,  neither  on  the  one 


Heaven.  And  we  have  become  imitators  of  thee  (i.  6  ;  ii.  14) 
and  of  the  churclies  of  God  in  Judaea,  and  of  thy  patience  and  o' 
theirs  in  those  afflictions  whereunto  we  are  appointed.  And 
thou  hast  been  to  us  as  a  nursing  father  (ii.  11,  9),  even  as  Moses 
carried  the  people  in  the  wilderness,  exhorting  us  to  walk 
worthily  of  the  Kingdom  and  Glory  of  God.  And  even  as  thou 
didst  declare  to  us  that  we  should  suffer  for  the  Kingdom  of 
God,  so  it  came  to  pass. 

"  But  we  desire  to  know  (iv.  13)  concerning  them  that  are 
fallen  asleep  before  the  coming  of  the  day  of  God,  and  what 
will  be  their  portion  when  that  day  cometh  suddenly  as  a  thief 
(v.  8)  upon  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth,  etc.,  etc. 

"  All  our  friends  salute  thee." 

^  See  ch.  XII.,  pp.   123,    124. 

2^  I  Thess.  iv.   11. 

2^  I  Thess.  V.   I. 

2"  Mt.  xxiv.  43,  44  ;  Lk.  xii.  39,  40.  This  comes  from  the  oldest 
source  for  Jesus'  teaching.  Mt.  and  Lk.  have  both  taken  it 
from  a  book  of  Sayings.  Perhaps  the  people  at  Thessalonica  had 
a  little  book  of  Sayings  of  Jesus  containing  these  words,  or  they 
may  simply  have  known  the  saying. 

^^  I  Thess.  V.  5. 


THE   THESSALONIANS   AND    OTHER-WORLDLINESS    145 

hand  to  sleep  nor  on  the  other  to  be  drunken  with  excite- 
ment, but  rather  to  be  sober  and  watchful.  He  writes  : 
"  Let  us,  since  we  are  of  the  day,  be  sober,  putting  on 
the  breast-plate  of  faith  and  love;  and  for  a  helmet, 
the  hope  of  salvation, "^s 

To  those  who  had  given  up  their  work,  Paul  further 
said,  "  Study  to  be  quiet,  and  to  do  your  own  business." 
He  reminded  them  of  his  earlier  advice  to  them  to 
"  work  with  their  own  hands  "  implying  that  otherwise 
they  might  not  "  walk  honestly."29  Not  all  of  the 
Thessalonians  were  so  foolish  as  to  give  up  their  work, 
for  Paul  tells  some  of  them  to  "  admonish  the  disorderly, 
encourage  the  faint-hearted,  support  the  weak."30 
Apparently  the}^  had  some  leaders  who  also  took  a  saner 
view,  for  Paul  says, 

"  Know  those  that  labour  among  you  ;  and  are  over 
you  in  the  Lord  .  .  .  esteem  them  exceedingl}' 
highly  in  love  for  their  work's  sake."^^ 

One  special  thing  that  the  Thessalonians  asked  Paul 
was  "  concerning  them  that  fall  asleep. "^2  Apparently, 
some  of  the  community  had  died,  perhaps  as  martyrs 
in  the  persecution,  since  Paul  left,  and  their  friends 
feared  lest  they  might  not  share  in  the  new  age  which  the 
Coming  of  Jesus  would  bring.  But  Paul  reassured  them 
saying  that  even  as  they  knew  that  "  Jesus  died  and 
rose  again  "  so  they  could  be  sure  that  "  them  also 
which  are  fallen  asleep  in  Jesus  will  God  bring  with 
him."  Their  loved  ones  should  share  in  the  new  age 
even  though  they  have  fallen  asleep  ;  indeed,  those  who 

28  I  Thess.  V.  6-8. 

2'  I  Thess  iv.  11-12.  Paul  himself  was  working  with  his 
hands  in  Corinth  when  he  wrote  this. 

^^  I  Thess.  V.   14. 

^^  I  Thess.  V.  12,  13.  One  would  like  to  know  much  more 
about  these  leaders.  There  is  nothing  to  indicate  that  they 
had  been  appointed  by  Paul.  This  emphasis  on  their  work 
probably  implies  that  they  were  simply  recognised  or  possibly 
appointed  by  their  brethren  as  leaders  because  they  had  proved 
excellent  workers. 

^2   I  Thess.  iv.   13. 


146  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

were  alive  at  "  the  coming  of  the  Lord  "  should  "  in 
no  wise  precede  them  that  are  fallen  asleep. "^^ 

"  For  the  Lord  himself  shall  descend  from  heaven, 
with  a  shout,  with  the  voice  of  the  archangel,  and  with 
the  trump  of  God  :  and  the  dead  in  Christ  shall  rise 
first :  then  we  that  are  alive,  that  are  left,  shall  together 
with  them  be  caught  up  in  the  clouds,  to  meet  the  Lord 
in  the  air  :   and  so  shall  we  ever  be  with  the  Lord.'*^* 

Here  we  see  what  a  dramatic  programme  Paul  had 
in  mind.  Any  day  Jesus  might  suddenly  descend 
from  heaven  and  carr\^  out  this  marvellous  programme. 
Now  this  kind  of  programme  was  thoroughly  Jewish  ; 
many  writers  had  pictured  wonderful  events  in  connec- 
tion with  the  coming  of  the  Messiah.  Daniel  had  spoken 
of  the  coming  of  the  Son  of  Man  "  with  the  clouds  of 
heaven,"  Zechariah  had  spoken  of  the  coming  of  the 
Lord  "  with  all  the  holy  ones  "  ;  Enoch  had  said  "  Lo, 
he  comes  with  ten  thousands  of  holy  ones,"  and  many 
others  had  set  forth  in  various  ways  the  Coming,  the 
Resurrection,  the  Judgment,  and  the  Inauguration  of 
the  Messianic  Kingdom. ^^     All  this  early  speculation 

^^  I  Thess.  iv.  14,  15.  In  Jewish  literature  a  special  blessing 
is  pronounced  upon  those  who  are  alive  at  the  coming  of  the 
Messiah.     Dan.  xii.   12,   13  ;    2  Esdras  xiii.  24. 

^*  I  Thess.  iv.  16,  17. 

^^  Dan.  vii.  13  ;  Zech.  xiv.  5  ;  Enoch  i.  9.  The  books  which 
best  show^  this  development  in  Jewish  thought  are  the 
"  Apocalyptic  "  books  or  Revelations  of  the  future.  This 
literature  began  to  develop  just  before  the  time  of  Daniel,  170  b.c. 
and  continued  through  the  second  century  a.d.  Indeed  the 
apocalyptic  book  which  contains  the  closest  parallel  to  this 
apocalyptic  programme  of  Paul's  is  a  Christian  apocalypse 
called  the  Testament  of  Hezekiah  embedded  in  a  book  called 
"  The  Ascension  of  Isaiah,"  not  put  together  before  the  end  of  the 
second  century  a.d.  "  The  Testament  of  Hezekiah,"  how^ever, 
may  come  from  88-100  a.d.  Since  it  is  written  after  Paul's 
time  we  cannot  call  it  a  source  for  Paul's  thought ;  indeed,  it 
may  have  been  influenced  by  Paul,  but  it  shows  that  such 
speculations  were  in  the  air  in  the  first  century.  The  passage 
which  is  most  like  Paul  is  as  follows  : 

"  And  after  (one  thousand)  three  hundred  and  thirty-two  days 
the  Lord  will  come  wdth  His  angels  and  with  the  armies  of  the 


THE   THESSALONIANS    AND    OTHER-WORLDLINESS    I47 

about  the  coming  of  the  Messiah^^  was  now  associated 
by  Paul  and  Peter  and  the  early  Christians^''  with  Jesus, 
who  was  expected  to  come  again  to  the  earth  and  fulfil 
these  hopes.  They  did  not  seem  to  feel  that  it  was  in- 
consistent with  the  teaching  of  Jesus.  Indeed,  Paul 
introduces  his  apocalyptic  programme  with  the  words, 
"  This  we  say  unto  you  by  the  word  of  the  Lord,"^^ 
but  we  have  no  such  saying  reported  from  Jesus  except 

the  references  to  the  coming  of  the  Son  of  Man  with  the 
clouds.39 

How  strange  that  Paul  should  hold  and  teach  this 
mistaken  Jewish  hope  when  he  had  been  great  enough 
to  cast  off  the  narrow  Jewish  idea  of  the  law  as  the  only 
approach  to  God  !      Still,  it  was  only  the  method  of 

holy  ones  from  the  seventh  heaven  with  the  glory  of  the  seventh 
heaven.  .  .  .  And  He  will  give  rest  to  the  godly  whom  He 
shall  find  in  the  body  in  this  world.  .  .  .  But  the  saints  shall 
come  with  the  Lord  with  their  garments  which  are  (now)  stored 
up  on  high  in  the  seventh  heaven.  With  the  Lord  they  will 
come,  whose  spirits  are  clothed,  they  will  descend  and  be  present 
in  the  world,  and  He  will  strengthen  those  who  have  been  found 
in  the  body,  together  with  the  saints,  in  the  garments  of  the 
saints,  and  the  Lord  will  minister  to  those  who  have  kept  watch 
in  this  world.  And  afterwards  they  will  turn  themselves  upward 
in  their  garments,  and  their  body  will  be  left  in  the  world." — 
"  The  Ascension  of  Isaiah,"  R.  H.  Charles,  pp.  34,  35.  For 
another  example  of  a  late  apocalypse  with  some  points  like 
Paul's,  see  2  Esdras,  vii.  26,  ff. 

^*  See  ch.  TIL,  p. 38-41.  In  i  Cor.  xvi.  22,  Paul  uses  the 
Aramaic  expression  "  Maran-atha  " — Our  Lord,  come.  The 
way  in  which  he  uses  it  shows  that  it  was  a  much-used  word 
among  early  Aramaic-speaking  Christians,  and  shows  their  hope 
of  Jesus'  return.  The  earliest  church  liturgy  also  contains  it. — ■ 
"  Teaching  of  the  Twelve,"  X.  6. 

^'  Acts  iii.  19-21,  etc. 

^^  I  Thess.  iv.  15. 

^^  Mk.  xiv.  62,  cf.  Mk.xiii.  26,  27,  etc.  It  is  difficult  to  know 
just  what  Paul  means  by  the  "  word  of  the  Lord."  Perhaps 
this  is  his  explanation  of  the  sayings  in  Mark,  or  of  some  saying 
that  is  lost,  or  perhaps  he  means  that  this  seems  in  accordance 
with  the  Spirit  of  Jesus  within  him.  For  further  consideration, 
see  Lake's  "  Did  Paul  use  the  Logia  ?  " — "  Amer.  Jour,  of 
Theology,"  Jan.,  1906. 


14^  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

realizing  the  hope  that  was  wrong.  The  faith  in  Jesus 
as  sure  to  triumph  was  well-founded  and  right,  but  that 
he  would  return  on  the  clouds  in  that  generation,  that 
they  could  avoid  death  and  meet  him  in  the  air,  proved 
to  be  wrong.  That  was  a  part  of  the  Jewish  system  of 
thought  of  the  time  which  Paul  shared. 
"  Our  little  systems  have  their  day. 

They  have  their  day  and  cease  to  be; 

They  are  but  broken  lights  of  thee 
And  Thou,  O  Lord,  art  more  than  they.''*" 

Paul  saw  the  light  of  God  through  his  Jewish  system 
of  thought,  and  therefore  the  limitations  of  the  system 
did  little  harm  either  to  himself  or  others.  1 1  might  have 
done  much  harm  to  the  Thessalonians  if  Paul  had  not 
been  great  enough  to  see  that  the  all-important  thing 
was  the  truth  underlying  the  system  of  thought,  namely, 
that  the  life  with  Christ  produces  the  Christ-like  life  and 
is  the  one  hope  of  salvation.  That  Paul's  interest 
centred  in  the  salvation  that  results  from  living  with 
Christ  whether  in  this  life  or  the  next  is  shown  by  his 
words  : 

"  For  God  appointed  us  not  imto  wrath,  but  unto  the 
obtaining  of  salvation  through  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
who  died  for  us,  that,  whether  we  wake  cr  sleep,  we  should 
live  together  with  him''''^^ 

That  was  the  greatest  thing  to  Paul's  mind — to  "  live 
together  with  him,"  that  is,  to  be  in  his  presence  whether 
in  this  world  or  the  next,  and  that  this  meant  to  those 
who  "wake,"  living  the  Christ-like  life  here  and  now,  is 
shown  by  his  next  words  : 

"  Wherefore  exhort  one  another,  and  build  each  other 
up."42 

Evidently  a  life  of  helpfulness  in  this  present  world 
was  to  follow  naturally  from  living  with  Christ.     To  be 

^^  Tennyson's  "  In  Memoriam."     Introduction. 

*^  I  Thess.  V.   lo. 

*^  I  Thess.  V.  II.  Paul  never  uses  the  words,  Christ-like 
life,  but  it  is  hard  to  find  any  other  words  to  describe  the  type  of 
life  which  he  always  expects  to  follow  the  living  "  together 
v/ith  him." 


THE   THESSALONIANS   AND   OTHER-WORLDLINESS    I49 

sure,  Paul  never  points  to  any  part  of  the  life  of  Christ 
as  an  example, ^^  but  that  is  because  he  thinks  of  Christ 
as  far  more  than  an  outward  example.  He  is  the  inner 
Spirit  from  which  the  Christ-like  flows.  Just  as  he  tells 
them  that  they  do  not  need  to  be  advised  "  concerning 
love  of  the  brethren  "**  because  they  themselves  "  are 
taught  of  God  to  love  one  another  "  so  he  refers  to  the 
"  will  of  God  in  Christ  Jesus  "  as  the  motive  power  for 
following  "  after  that  which  is  good,  one  toward  another 
and  toward  all,"  of  rejoicing  always,  of  praying  without 
ceasing,  and  giving  thanks  in  everything*^. 

Thus  Paul  by  his  sane  high  conception  of  the  meaning 
of  life  saved  himself  and  others  from  the  other-worldli- 
ness  which  might  have  resulted  from  the  expectation  of 
the  sudden  return  of  Jesus.  It  was  apparently  his 
continuous  consciousness  of  "Christ  liveth  in  me  "*^ 
or  living  "  together  with  him  "  that  gave  him  this  high 
regard  for  the  life  of  the  present.  Since  we  are  living 
"  together  with  him,"  our  life  now  must  be  worthy  of 
him,  and  to  be  worthy  of  him  one  must  do  one's 
work  quietly  and  honestly.  This  Paul  saw  clearly  as 
he  worked  away  at  his  tent-making  in  Corinth,  and 
learned  that  some  of  the  Thessalonians  were  letting  their 
life  fall  below  the  standard  of  purity  and  helpfulness. 
But  Timothy  was  probably  dispatched  at  once  with  the 
letter  that  must  have  made  them  feel  that  they  had  again 
come  into  actual  touch  with  Paul  himself  and  made 
them  realize  that  their  "  spirit  and  soul  and  body  "  must 
"  be  preserved  entire,  without  blame,  at  the  coming  of 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  ""^^ 

*^  Unless  Phil.  ii.  5-8,  is  an  exception,  but  here  the  emphasis 
is  on  having  the  "  mind  of  Christ,"  rather  than  the  following  of 
his  example  of  obedience. 

**  I  Thess.  iv.  9. 

*5  I  Thess.  V.   15-18. 

*®  Gal.  ii.  20. 

"  I  Thess.  V.  23.  It  seems  hard  to  know  how  to  fit  2  Thess. 
into  Paul's  life  and  thought,  for  this  reason  many  doubt  whether 
Paul  wrote  it.     The  situation  is  well  stated  by  Prof.  Peake  thus  : 


150  THE   LIFE   AND   MINISTRY  OF  PAUL 

"  The  author  seems  to  contradict  the  view  as  to  the  Second 
Coming  expressed  in  the  First  Epistle.  In  i  Thess.  Paul  appears 
to  anticipate  that  the  Second  Coming  is  imminent,  and  expect 
that  some,  at  least,  of  his  readers  and  himself  will  survive  till  it 
takes  place.  In  the  Second  Epsitle  he  tells  them  that  they  must 
not  be  led  to  think  that  it  is  at  hand,  especially  mentioning  that 
such  an  opinion  might  be  derived  from  a  letter  professing  to  come 
from  himself.  A  development  of  apostasy  is  first  to  take 
place,  and  the  man  of  lawlessness  to  be  revealed,  and  then  slain 
on  the  appearance  of  Christ  (2  Thess.  ii.  1-12).  The  mention  in 
ii.  2  of  a  letter  w^hich  might  be  circulated  in  Paul's  name, 
combined  with  the  attestation  of  authenticity  at  the  close  (iii.  7), 
has  not  unnaturally  raised  the  suspicion  that  the  author  wished 
to  substitute  his  own  composition  for  i  Thess.  with  its  uncongenial 
eschatology.  ...  It  is  possible,  however,  to  put  the 
relations  between  the  two  Epistles  in  a  favourable  light  without 
recourse  to  the  hypothesis  of  non-authenticity.  While  Paul  in 
the  First  Epistle  anticipates  that  the  Second  Coming  will  take 
place  in  his  own  lifetime,  he  does  not  intend  to  convey  the 
opinion  that  it  will  take  place  immediately.  Some  of  the 
Thessalonians,  however,  probably  through  misunderstanding 
of  his  language,  imagined  that  the  Second  Coming  was  imminent. 
To  correct  the  restlessness  and  disorder  which  ensued,  Paul 
wrote  the  Second  Epistle  to  interpret  the  language  of  the  First, 
warning  them  against  forgeries  and  explaining  that  the 
Parousia  cannot  be  imminent,  inasmuch  as  a  certain  develop- 
ment which  still  lies  in  the  future  is  to  take  place  before  it." — 
"  A  Critical  Introduction  of  the  New  Testament,"  Arthur  S. 
Peake,  pp.  12,  13. 

It  is  impossible  on  this  evidence  to  decide  certainly  whether 
Paul  wrote  2  Thess.  or  not.  At  any  rate  it  adds  very  little  to  the 
knowledge  of  Paul,  for  it  is  almost  exactly  like  i  Thess.,  except 
the  verses  about  the  Second  Coming.  Therefore  we  will  not 
further  consider  it. 


CHAPTER  XV 

PAUL    ESTABLISHES    THE     RELIGION     OF    THE     SPIRIT     IN 
CORINTH    AND    GALATIA. 

On  a  marble  blocks  broken  away  at  both  ends,  there  has 
recently  been  discovered  in  Corinth,  the  Greek  letters 
equivalent  to  the  following  : 

AGOGEHEBR. 

Undoubtedly  this  is  part  of  an  inscription  which  read 
in  Greek  : 

Synagogue  of  the  Hebrews. 
It  is  not  certain  how  old  it  is,  but  possibly  this  was  the 
lintel  over  the  door  of  the  synagogue  which  Paul  attended 
while  he  worked  at  tent-making  with  Aquila.  At  any 
rate  Paul  went  to  the  Corinthian  synagogue  and  found 
opportunity  for  taking  part  in  the  service  and  making 
known  his  message  concerning  Jesus,  and  after  the  news 
from  Thessalonica  he  seems  to  have  entered  with  new 
zeal  into  the  synagogue  preaching.  This  aroused  the 
Jews,  who  so  strenuously  opposed  him  that  he  "  shook 
out  his  raiment,"   saying, 

"  Your  blood  be  on  your  own  heads  ;  I  am  clean  ; 
from  henceforth  I  will  go  unto  the  Gentiles.  "2 

Paul  then  began  teaching  in  the  house  of  Titus  Justus, 
near  the  synagogue,  though  he  probably  still  continued 
to  live  and  work  with  Aquila  and  Priscilla.  But  Crispus, 
the  ruler  of  the  synagogue,  had  been  so  impressed  by 
Paul's  testifying  that  Jesus  is  the  Messiah,  that  he  left 

*  Discovered  in  1896  by  Richardson. 
"  Acts  xviii.  6. 

151 


152  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

the  synagogue  and  came  to  the  house  of  Titus  Justus, 
and  Paul  liiniself  baptized  liim,  tliougli  he  seldom  per- 
formed that  rite.-^  Other  Corinthians  also  came  to  the 
new  place  of  worship  among  whom  were  probably  the 
"  household  of  Stephanas,"  which  was  the  "  first  fruits 
of  Achaia  "  and  perhaps  Gains,'*  Fortunatus,  Achaicus'^ 
and  Chloe.^' 

Paul  had  not  come  to  Corinth  because  he  realized  that 
the  Spirit  of  Jesus  had  sent  him  there  to  work.  He  had 
come  feeling  that  he  had  been  wrongfully  driven  out  of 
Thessalonica,  and  knowing  that  he  had  failed  to  accom- 
plish much  in  Athens.  Probably  he  is  thinking  of  this 
when  he  sa3^s  : 

"  I  was  with  you  in  weakness,  and  in  fear  and  much 
trembling."^ 

But  Luke  says  that  after  the  new  work  had  begun  in 
the  house  of  Titus  Justus,  Paul  had  special  assurance 
that  he  was  in  the  right  place,  and  that  he  would  be 
strengthened  to  meet  his  enemies,  the  Jews.^  Certainly 
Paul's  Corinthian  letters  show  that  he  felt  that  God 
was  with  him  in  founding  the  Corinthian  Church. ^ 
Here,  then,  is  one  case  where  Paul  does  not  see  the 
leading  of  God  until  he  is  in  the  midst  of  his  new  work. 
When,  however,  he  does  see  that  God  is  leading  him 
out  into  promising  work,  no  opposition  can  stop  him. 

Not  only  in  Corinth  did  Paul  have  occasion  to  know 
that  the  Jews  made  themselves  his  enemies,  but  it  is 
probably  while  Paul  is  in  the  midst  of  his  work  here 
that  word  reaches  him  that  Jewish  teachers  are  des- 
troying the  work  of  his  first  missionary  tour.     They  are 

'  Acts  xviii.  7,   8  ;     i  Cor.  i.   14. 

*  Acts  xviii.  8  ;     i  Cor.  i.   14-16  ;    xvi.   15. 

*  I  Cor.  xvi.   17. 

*  I  Cor.  i.   II. 
'  I  Cor.  ii.   3. 

^  Acts  xviii.  9,    10. 

*  I  Cor.  iii.  6,  9,  etc. 


RELIGION    IN    CORINTH   AND    GALATIA  1 53 

persuading  the  Galatians^o  to  accept  the  Jewish  Law  by 
preaching  a  "  different  gospel  "ii  and  that  Paul's 
teachings  ought  not  to  be  followed  since  he  is  not  a 
true  apostle.  The  Galatians  have  already  begun  keeping 
some  of  the  Jewish  days  and  seasons^^  and  are  con- 
sidering whether  or  not  they  ought  to  be  circumcised. ^^ 
So  Paul  again  ministers  by  letter  to  a  far-away  church. 

"  My  little  children,"  he  writes,  "  of  whom  I  am  again 
in  travail  until  Christ  be  formed  in  you  .  .  .  yea,  I 
could  wish  to  be  present  with  you  now,  and  to  change 
my  voice  ;    for  I  am  perplexed  about  you."^* 

Thus  Paul  writes  to  them  apparently  expecting  them 
to  understand  why  he  cannot  possibly  come  to  them, 
why  it  was  necessary  instead  to  write  with  strong,  almost 
harsh  tones. ^^  Surprise,  perplexity  and  grief  express 
themselves  in  the  first  words  after  the  Greeting  of  the 
letter  : 

' '  I  marvel  that  ye  are  so  quickly  removing  from  him 
that  called  you  in  the  grace  of  Christ  unto  a  different 
gospel.  .  .  Though  we  or  an  angel  from  heaven, 
should  preach  unto  you  any  gospel  other  than  that  which 
we  preached  unto  you,  let  him  be  anathema. "i^ 

^"  How  Paul  learned  about  the  Galatians  we  have  no  informa- 
tion. Had  he,  perhaps,  sent  Silas  to  Galatia  Vvhen  he  sent 
Timothy  back  to  Thessalonica  ?     See  ch.  XIV.,  p.  149. 

11  Gal.  i.  6. 

12  Gal.  iv.   10. 

13  Gal.  V.  2,   3. 
1^  Gal.  iv.  20. 

^■'  If  Paul  had  been  at  Antioch  or  even  at  Ephesus  it  is  difficult 
to  see  why  he  might  not  have  gone  to  the  Galatians.  This  taken 
with  the  fact  that  Paul  implies  that  he  has  visited  them  twice 
before  (iv.  13),  is  the  chief  reason  for  supposing  that  the  Galatian 
letter  was  written  at  this  time.  Paul's  first  visit  to  Galatia  was, 
of  course,  when  he  first  preached  to  them  (see  ch.  VIII.),  and 
his  second  was  when  he  stopped  in  Galatia  on  his  way  out 
toward  Macedonia  (see  ch.  XL,  p.  106-110).  If  he  is  in  the 
midst  of  new  work  opening  in  Corinth,  it  is  easy  to  see  why  he 
could  not  leave  it  to  go  across  the  iEgean  and  to  Galatia  over 
land,  since  it  would  take  so  long. 

^«  Gal.  i.  6-10. 


T54  THK    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

Because  he  is  so  fully  convinced  of  the  truth  of  this 
gospel  which  he  was  sent  as  an  apostle  to  preach  to  the 
Galatians  he  feels  that  he  must  defend  his  apostleship 
in  order  to  preserve  the  Gospel.  It  is  for  this  reason 
that  he  begins  with  the  words,  "  Paul,  an  apostle," 
and  then  tells  of  the  events  connected  with  his  con- 
version. These  events  make  it  clear  that  he  was,  indeed, 
an  apostle  because  he  did  not  receive  anything  from  the 
Jerusalem  apostles  during  his  few  visits  to  them,  but 
had  his  call  direct  from  God.^^  He  told  them  also  about 
the  conference  in  Jerusalem  and  the  rebuke  of  Peter 
at  Antioch  to  show  that  there  was  not  even  any  evidence 
that  the  Jerusalem  apostles  wished  the  Galatians  to 
keep  the  Law.^^  It  seemed  incomprehensible  to  Paul 
that  the  Galatians  should  wish  to  put  themselves  under 
the  bondage  of  the  Law. 

"0  foolish  Galatians,"  he  writes,  "  who  did  bewitch 
you  before  whose  eyes  Jesus  Christ  was  set  forth  crucified  ? 
.  .  .  Are  ye  so  foolish  ?  having  begun  in  the  Spirit 
are  ye  now  perfected  in  the  flesh  ?  "i^ 

It  was  the  Gospel  of  the  Spirit  that  Paul  had  preached 
to  these  people,  the  Gospel  of  Faith.  They  had  received 
it  by  "  the  hearing  of  faith  "  not  by  any  "  works  of 
the  law, "20  for  they  were  Gentiles.  But  if  they  have 
suddenly  become  so  much  interested  in  the  teaching 
of  the  Old  Testament  the}'  would  do  well  to  consider 
the  fact  that  Faith  is  older  than  Law  and  that  the  true 
sons  of  Abraham  are  those  who  are  "  of  faith  "  for 
"  Abraham  believed  [i.e.,  had  faith  in)  God  and  it  was 

1'  Gal.  i.  I,  II,  12.  Paul's  words  about  these  events  we  have 
studied  for  evidence  as  to  the  course  of  his  life  up  to  this  point 
(Gal.  i.  11-23). 

1^  Gal.  ii.  1-2 1.  Paul  certainly  would  not  take  told  here  of  the 
rebuke  of  Peter  if  it  had  not  been  as  complete  a  triumph  for 
Paul's  gospel  at  Antioch  as  the  conference  had  been  in  Jerusalem 
(See  ch.  X.,  p.  104).  Paul  had  visited  the  Galatians  since  the 
Jerusalem  conference,  but  did  not  tell  them  about  it  probably 
because  he  had  not  thought  of  the  possibility  of  their  wishing  to 
take  up  the  Law. 

^^  Gal.  iii.    1-3. 

2»  Gal.  iii.  2,  5. 


RELIGION   IN    CORINTH   AND    GALATIA  155 

reckoned  unto  him  for  righteousness. "21  The  Gospel  of 
the  Gentiles,  that  is,  Justification  by  Faith,  was  realized 
by  Abraham  long  before  Moses  wrote  the  Law.22  Indeed, 
the  onty  hope  of  standing  before  God  justified,  that  is, 
uncondemned,  is  through  Faith,  for  no  one  was  ever 
able  to  keep  the  Law.  All  who  try  keeping  the  Law  find 
themselves  under  a  curse.  This  curse  Christ  has  re- 
moved by  his  death  and  resurrection. ^3  Why,  then, 
should  anyone  wish  to  attempt  to  keep  the  Law  ?  Does 
anyone  suppose  that  the  covenant  made  with  Abraham 
was  annulled  by  the  coming  of  the  Law  430  years  later  P^* 
That  is  clearly  absurd  for  even  a  human  covenant  once 
made  is  not  made  void  by  later  covenants.  Much  more, 
then,  does  the  promise  of  God  made  to  Abraham  still 
hold  good.^5 

"  What,  then,  is  the  law  ?  "  It  was  "  added  because 
of  the  transgression,"  that  is,  to  show  people  that  they 
are  sinners  by  showing  them  that  they  cannot  live  up 
to  its  standard,-^  to  make  them  want  some  new  way  of 


2^  Gal.   iii.  6,   7. 

22  Gal.  iii.  8.  9.  On  how  faith  can  justify,  see  ch.  XVIII., 
pp.  205,  206. 

^^  Gal.  iii.  Q-14.  On  how  the  death  of  Jesus  removed  the  curse 
of  the  Law,  see  ch.  VI.,  p.  56. 

2*  The  430  comes  from  Ex.  xii.  40,  41,  compare  Gen.  xv.  13. 

25  Gal.  iii.  15-18.  Paul's  argument  from  the  text  about 
"  seeds,"  is  a  result  of  his  Jewish  education.  Note,  he  sa3^s, 
that  the  promise  was  made  to  the  seed  of  Abraham,  not  to  his 
seeds,  therefore  to  Christ  as  the  bringer-in  of  Faith.  As  a 
matter  of  fact  the  word  seed  in  Gen  xii.  7  ;  xiii.  15,  etc.,  is 
plural  in  meaning.  But,  of  coure,  this  style  of  argument  was 
common  among  the  Jews  of  Paul's  day,  and  he  now  is  dealing 
with  the  arguments  of  the  Jews  who  are  trying  to  win  the 
Galatians  to  Judaism. 

26  Gal.  iii.  19.  This  idea  of  the  Law  as  ordained  by  angels  comes 
from  Deut.  xxxiii.  2.  The  mediator  of  the  Law,  of  course,  was 
Moses.  But  wdiat  does  verse  20  mean  ?  It  is,  perhaps,  that  the 
new  Faith  covenant  does  not  need  a  mediator  since  it  is  ordained 
directly  through  Christ  who  is  one  with  the  One  God  rather 
than  by  angels  and  Moses  ?  At  any  rate  the  verse  does  not  add 
anything  important  to  Paul's  main  argument  here. 


l^C)  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

righteousness.  Xow  the  Law  cannot  make  people 
righteous  because  it  cannot  "  make  alive,"  that  is, 
it  gives  no  living  im])ulse  to  righteousness ;  it  can  do 
nothing  but  "  shut  up  all  things  under  sin  "  so  that  people 
will  long  for  "  the  })romise  by  faith  in  Jesus  Christ." 
Indeed,  the  Law  never  undertook  to  complete  a  man's 
education  but  only  to  act  as  a  tutor  to  bring  him  to  the 
chief  teacher,  Christ. 

But  now  that  "  faith  is  come,"  how  can  anyone  wish 
to  be  "  kept  in  restraint,"  "  under  a  tutor  ?  "27  How 
can  anyone  wisTi  to  be  treated  as  a  mere  child  ?-^ 
Especially  how  can  those  who  have  been  "  in  bondage 
to  them  which  by  nature  are  no  gods  "  "  desire  to  be 
in  bondage  over  again  "  "to  the  weak  and  beggarly 
rudiments  ?  "^^  It  is  like  preferring  to  be  the  children 
of  Hagar,  the  bondswoman,  rather  than  children  of 
Sarah,  the  free-woman  ;  like  choosing  the  present 
Jerusalem  instead  of  the  New  Jerusalem.  But  we  are 
"  children  of  promise  "  like  Isaac,  not  children  of  the 
handmaid  who  was  cast  out.^'^ 

Indeed,  "  Ye  are  all  sons  of  God"  and  "  heirs  accord- 
ing to  the  promise,"  writes  Paul,  because  ye  have  "  put 
on  Christ. "^1  "  For  Christ  came  in  the  fulness  of  the 
time  "  "  that  we  might  receive  the  adoption  of  sons," 
and  "  because  ye  are  sons,  God  sent  forth  the  spirit  of 
his  Son  into  our  hearts,  crying,  Abba,  Father. "^^  We 
who  are  sons  are  therefore  free  from  the  Law.  "  With 
freedom  did  Christ  set  us  free  ;  stand  fast  therefore, 
and  be  not  entangled  again  in  a  j^oke  of  bondage." 
Whoever  receives  circumcision  throws  away  all  the 
advantages  gained  through  faith  in  Christ,  indeed  he 
is  "  severed  from  Christ. "^^ 

"  GaL  iii.  21-25. 

2^  Gal.  iv.  1-3. 

■'»  Gal.  iv.  S-ii. 

^"  Gal.  iv.  21-31. 

^^  Gal.  iii.  26-29. 

^'^  Gal.  iv.  4-7. 

33  Gal.  V.  1-6. 


RELIGION   IN    CORINTH   AND    GALATIA  157 

Thus  Paul  wards  off  from  the  Galatians  the  danger 
of  puttmg  law  and  form  in  place  of  spirit.  They  are 
absolutely  free  ;  not  one  law  or  form  is  laid  upon  them. 
They  are  free  to  "  walk  by  the  Spirit."  Paul  seems 
to  have  the  greatest  confidence  in  people  who  are  free 
to  follow  the  spirit  of  God.  Such  will  not  use  their 
"  freedom  for  an  occasion  to  the  flesh  "  ;  they  will  not 
lord  it  over  one  another,  but  "  through  love  be  servants 
to  one  another."  They  will  not  produce  "  the  works 
of  the  flesh  "  but  the  "  fruit  of  the  Spirit."^*  Thus  Paul 
wins  back  the  Galatians  to  trust  in  the  life  issuing  from 
the  Spirit  of  Christ  within. 

He  takes  the  pen  from  the  scribe  and  writes  a  few 
sentences  at  the  end  of  his  letter  with  his  own  hand, 
and  gives  his  personal  testimony  to  the  fact  that  no  law 
is  necessary.  He  has  found  that  Christ  suftices  for  the 
living  of  a  holy  life,  for  through  his  death,  Paul  says, 

"  The  world  hath  been  crucified  unto  me,  and  I  unto 
the  world." 

Having  died  to  sin  and  become  a  "  new  creature  "  no 
"  rule  "  is  necessary  for  him  except  the  impulse  of  the 
new  life  which  causes  him  to  fulfil  "  the  law  of  Christ, "^^ 
that  is,  live  the  Christlike  life. 

How  Paul  sent  this  letter  to  the  Galatians  neither  he 
nor  Luke  tells  us.  Timothy  would  be  the  most  natural  one 
to  imagine  as  the  messenger,  since  his  home  was  among 
the  Galatians.  Paul's  life  must  have  been  a  busy  one 
in  those  days,  for  not  only  was  he  writing  letters  to  his 
far-away  churches,  but  he  was  carrying  on  an  active 
campaign  in  Corinth,  and  being  opposed  at  every  turn 
by  the  Jews.  He  had  to  endure  a  special  hardship 
when  Gallio,^®  a  new  pro-consul,  came  to  Achaea,  for  the 

^*  Gal.  V.   13-26. 

^^  Gal.  vi.   1-18. 

^^  The  date  of  Gallio's  arrival  at  Corinth  has  been  practically 
settled  by  the  find  at  Delphi  of  an  inscription  of  the  Emperor 
Claudius,  which  speaks  of  "  Gallio,  my  friend,  pro- consul  of 
Achaea."  The  monument  dates  from  51  a.d.,  and  as  pro-consuls 
of  Achaea  served  only  one  year,  this  must  be  the  year  of  Gallio's 


158  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF   PAUL 

Jews,  hoping  that  the  new  official  would  like  to  win 
their  favour  b}'  granting  their  request  to  stop  Paul's 
teaching,  brought  Paul  before  him.  Gallio  was  the 
brother  of  the  great  Stoic  philosopher,  Seneca.  Gallio 
shows  that  he  is  a  Roman  ruler  of  high  character  by 
refusing  to  use  any  i)arty  strife  to  win  friends.  He 
drives  the  Jews  from  the  judgment  seat  and  does  not 
interfere  when  the  mob  beats  Sosthenes,37  the  Jewish 
ruler  of  the  s^'nagogue.  To  be  sure,  he  also  throws 
away  this  chance  of  getting  acquainted  with  Paul,  who 
would  probably  have  interested  him.  He  "  cared  for 
none  of  these  things  "  because  he  was  disgusted  with 
what  seemed  mere  theological  quarrelling. 

No  doubt  this  incident  gave  Paul  still  more  liberty 
to  push  his  ministry-  forward  in  Corinth  because  he  now 
knew  that  he  could  not  be  arrested  by  any  Jewish 
accusations.  Probabty  in  the  house  of  Titus  Justus 
he  continued  his  work  and  the  very  Sosthenes  who  had 
appeared  against  him  before  Gallio  seems  to  have  become 
a  Christian.  At  least,  Paul  and  "  Sosthenes,  our 
brother,"  later  write  a  letter  to  the  Corinthians.  This 
later  letter  to  the  Corinthians  shows  that  Paul  accom- 
plished much  more  in  Corinth  than  Luke  reports.  It 
shows  that  a  flourishing  community  of  Christians  grew 
up .  there  ;  it  shows  that  Paul  and  his  friends  had 
been  able  to  win  a  brotherhood  group  in  the  great 
wicked  city  of  Corinth.  Surely,  it  must  have  seemed 
the  most  hopeless  place  to  work.  So  full  of  licentious- 
ness was  Corinth  that  it  had  become  a  byword 
ever;y^iere,  and  its  worst  faults  were  encouraged 
by  its  religion.  Strabo  says  that  "  the  temple  of 
Venus  at  Corinth  was  so  rich  that  it  had  more  than 


entrance  upon  office  at  Corinth.  This  means  that,  according  to 
Acts  xviii.  I  iff,  Paul  came  to  Corinth  in  49  or  50  a.d.  and  was 
brought  up  before  Gallio  in  51,  and  left  Corinth  in  the  later 
part  of  that  year  or  early  in  52. 

3'  In  Acts  xviii.  17,  "they  all  laid  hold."  It  is  impossible  to 
kno.v  certainly  to  whom  the  "they"  refers,  but  probably  it 
means  the  enemies  of  the  Jews. 


RELIGION   IN   CORINTH   AND   GALATIA  159 

a  thousand  women,  courtesans,  consecrated  to  the 
service  of  the  goddess."  This  temple  of  Venus  was  at 
the  highest  point  of  the  Acrocorinthus,  and  various 
other  temples  were  scattered  about  on  the  mountain 
top  and  all  along  the  road  leading  up  from  the  city. 
In  the  market-place  were  many  temples  and  on  a  hill 
above  it  the  great  temple  of  Apollo  of  which  several 
columns  still  stand. ^"^  The  city  was  full  of  temples 
and  of  uncleanness  !  It  certainly  took  some  courage 
to  tell  people  who  were  such  worshippers  of  dumb 
idols, 3'-^  people  who  had  experienced  a  considerable 
catalogue  of  follies  and  sins,*^  that  their  bodies  could 
become  the  temples  of  the  Holy  Spirit  and  members 
of  Christ.'*!  -Q^i  tj^a^t  is  just  the  kind  of  courage  in 
which  Paul  excelled.  He  knew  that  people  could  be 
transformed — that  human  nature  could  be  changed  ! 
He,  therefore,  watched  for  his  chance  to  tell  them 
about  Jesus.  For  he  knew  also  that  such  miracles 
were  wrought  only  by  "  Christy  the  power  of  God  " 
working  in  those  who  are  "  being  saved, "*^  indeed, 
that  this  "  power  of  God  "  could  be  effective  in  lives 
only  if  "  Christ  crucified  "*^  were  known. 

^^  Pausanias  II.,  2.  "  In  the  forum,  therefore  (for  in  this 
place  there  are  many  temples),  there  are  two  wooden  statues 
.  which  are  gilt  in  every  part  except  the  face  ;  for  this 
in  each  is  adorned  with  vermilion."  Recent  excavations  in 
Corinth  have  uncovered  the  foundations  of  the  temple  of  Apollo 
dating  from  600  b.c.  One  can  see,  also,  foundations  of  smaller 
temples  of  various  dates  in  and  near  the  market-place.  In 
the  centre  of  the  city  is  the  splendid  fountain,  Peirene,  with 
its  six  channels  cut  far  back  into  the  rock.  Evidently  great  care 
was  taken  to  keep  the  city  well  supplied  with  water.  Of  special 
interest  in  connection  with  Paul  are  the  streets  with  remnants 
of  lines  of  shops.  Where  was  Paul's  tent-making  shop  one  wonders. 
Hardly  on  these  fine  main  streets  perhaps,  but  possibly  a 
shop  not  unlike  these  in  size  and  shape. 

^^  I  Cor.  xii.   I. 

^^  I  Cor.  xvi.  9-1 1. 

*^   I   Cor.  iii.   16,  and  vi.    15,  and  vi.   16. 

^2   I  Cor.  i.   18,  24. 

*^  I  Cor.  i.   18,  23. 


l6o  THE    LIKE   AND    MINISTRY   OF   PAUL 

"  For  I  detcriniiied,"  he  says  when  reviewing  his 
work  in  Corinth,  "  not  to  know  anything  among  you, 
save  Jesus  Christ,  and  him  crucified."** 

Paul  knew  that  it  would  be  necessary  for  these 
Corinthians  to  "  crucify  the  flesh  with  its  passion  and 
lusts  "*5  if  they  were  to  become  "  a  temple  of  the  living 
God."*^'  The  temples  in  which  they  had  been  worship- 
ping had  degraded  them  because  they  had  taught  them 
the  way  of  indulgence.  No  one  could  now  help  them  to 
a  higher  life  except  b}^  teaching  them  the  way  of  sacrifice. 
They  must  be  willing  to  sacrifice  the  low  and  degrading 
for  the  high  and  pure.  Paul,  therefore,  held  before 
them  Jesus,  as  the  supreme  example  of  sacrifice,  telling 
them  that : 

"  One  died  for  all,  therefore  all  died  ;  and  he  died  for 
all  that  they  which  live  should  no  longer  live  unto 
themselves,  but  unto  him  who  for  their  sakes  died  and 
rose  again. "^^ 

As  these  words  show,  Paul  preached  in  Corinth  not 
only  Christ  crucified,  but  also  Christ  risen,  but  the  two 
are  only  different  sides  of  the  same  fact — Christ  vic- 
torious through  suffering.  He  says  that  he  preached 
unto  them  the  story  of  Jesus'  death,  resurrection  and 
appearance  to  others  and  to  himself.*^  And  this  story 
"  saved  "^^  the  Corinthians.  Why  ?  Because  it  was 
not  merely  a  story  outside  themselves  but  it  took  them 
"  into  the  fellowship"  of  Jesus  Christ. ^^  It  awakened 
powers  within  them  that  made  them  victorious  too  ; 
they,  therefore,  felt  that  Jesus  not  only  had  lived 
but  still  lived;  that  he  was  the  "power  of  God" 
remaking  their  lives  from  within  ;  that  he  was,  indeed, 
the    Son    of    God   as    Paul    and    Silas    and  Timothy 


**  I  Cor.  ii.  2. 
*5  Gal.  V.  24. 

*"  2  Cor.  vi.   16. 

*'  2  Cor.  V.   14,  15. 

*8  I  Cor.  XV.   i-ii. 

■^^  I  Cor.  XV.  2. 

^"  I  Cor.  i.  9. 


RELIGION    IN    CORINTH   AND    GALATIA  1 6l 

preached, ^1  for  had  he  not  manifested  the  "  power  of 
God  "  both  in  his  own  life  and  in  theirs  ?  By  this 
inner  power  that  proceeded  from  the  Hfe  of  Christ 
each  one  became  "  a  new  creature  "  in  Christ. ^2  They 
became  entirely  changed  ;  they  received  the  "  spirit 
which  is  of  God  "^^  ;  they  came  to  "  have  the  mind  of 
Christ."^*  This  was  the  "  mystery  of  God  "^^  which  Paul 
proclaimed — this  life  "  in  Christ  "^^  which  was  a  life 
continuously  transformed  by  the  power  "  of  God," 
that  is,  the  life  of  the  Spirit. ^7 

Now  it  was  not  to  the  "  wise  after  the  flesh,"  not  to 
the  "  mighty  "  nor  "  noble  "  that  Paul  proclaimed  these 
great  things. ^^  It  was  to  the  plain,  commonplace  people, 
most  of  whom  probably  earned  their  own  living  and 
were  not  considered  great  personages  in  Corinth.  To  be 
sure,  he  did  not  use  philosophical  terms  nor  oratory, 
but  spoke  simply  and  directly.^^  Nevertheless  it  was 
"  God's  wisdom  in  a  mystery  "  that  he  spoke  and  he 
expected  them  to  understand. ^f*  But  the  background 
of  Greek  thought  which  these  Corinthians  had,  perhaps 
made  it  easy  for  them  to  understand  Paul's  "  mystery." 
Every  year  people  from  Corinth  went  to  Eleusis  to  join  in 
the  Eleusinian  mystery  ceremonies. ^1     They  went  in  pro- 


51 

2 

Cor. 

i. 

19- 

52 

2 

Cor. 

V. 

17- 

53 

I 

Cor. 

ii. 

12. 

54 

I 

Cor. 

ii. 

16. 

55 

I 

Cor. 

ii. 

I.  7. 

56 

I 

Cor. 

30. 

57 

2 

Cor. 

iii 

•  17- 

58 

I 

Cor. 

i. 

26. 

59 

I 

Cor. 

ii. 

I,  4, 

60 

I 

Cor. 

ii. 

6-8. 

61 

T 

Tip  olr 

1  Q-t 

■r>v\r   ax; 

and  iv.    i. 


The  old  story  was  that  Persephone,  while  gathering  flowers, 
was  carried  off  by  Pluto,  the  god  of  the  lower  world.  Her 
mother,  Demeter,  went  sorrowfully  about  seeking  for  her 
daughter,  and  vegetation  ceased,  since  Demeter  was  the  "  earth- 
mother."  Finally,  she  came  to  Eleusis,  and  there  learned  where 
her  daughter  was,  and  was  then  able  to  persuade  Zeus  to  release 
her  from  the  underworld  for  two-thirds  of  the  year  during  which 
time   vegetation   would    flourish.     Then   Demeter    taus^ht    the 


l62  THi:    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

cession,  recalling  the  car-rying  away  of  Persephone  and  the 
wanderings  of  Dcnieter  searching  for  her  lost  daughter, 
and  they  rejoiced  with  her  when  she  succeeded  in 
recovering  her  daugliter  for  part  of  the  year.  By  tlms 
sharing  the  grief  and  joy  of  the  goddess  they  believed 
thev  gained  lier  help  for  the  present  and  future.  The 
Corinthians,  then,  who  knew  of  this  and  other  mystery 
religions  could  easily  understand  Paul's  language  when 
he  spoke  of  the  "  mystery  of  God  "  and  of  being  brought 
"  into  the  fellowship  "  of  Christ  by  dying  and  living 
with  him. ^2  g^t  the  other  mystery  religions  did  little 
to  make  the  lives  of  their  votaries  morally  better,  whereas 
the  mystery  of  the  life  "  in  Christ  "  which  Paul  preached 
transformed  the  Corinthians,  soul  and  body,  and  brought 
them  into  harmony  with  the  Spirit  of  God  manifested 
in  the  holy  life  of  Jesus,  not  merely  during  times  of 
worship  but  amid  everyday  activities. 

The  new  community  that  grew  out  of  this  power  of 
God  manifest  in  Christ  was  bound  together  by  common 
experiences.  Like  the  other  mystery  religions^^  they 
had  baptism  for  a  rite  of  initiation,     Paul  never  laid 

Eleusinians  agriculture  and  her  mysteries.  Exactly  what  took 
place  in  the  annual  celebration  of  these  mysteries  is  not  yet 
known,  but  "  the  mystae  appear  to  have  endeavoured  to  live 
over  the  pains  of  Demeter.  Thej^  imitated  her  sad  wanderings 
after  her  daughter  had  been  forcibly  carried  away  by  the  god 
of  the  unseen  world.  They  shared  her  delight  when  that 
daughter  was  3aelded  up  by  her  ravisher."  See  Percy  Gardner's 
"  The  Religious  Experience  of  St.  Paul,"  p.  90,  and  all  of  ch.  IV. 
for  further  study  of  the  sv;bject.  There  were  also  "  mysteries  " 
in  Mithra  worship  and  other  religions  then  prevalent  in  the 
Roman  Empire.     See  also  Lake's  "  Early  Epistles." 

^2  2  Cor.  iv.  10,  II. 

^^  Not  that  Christian  baptism  originated  in  the  mystery 
religions.  It  probably  was  taken  over  from  John  the  Baptist, 
but  in  Gentile  countries  would  be  influenced  by  the  parallels 
of  the  mystery  religions.  The  early  Christian  writer, 
Tertullian,  in  his  "  Of  Baptism,"  V.,  gives  evidence  that  other 
religions  used  baptism,  for  he  says  that  those  who  enter  certain 
religions  "  are  admitted  by  washing,  to  certain  sacred  rites,  of  a 
certain  Isis  or  Mythra.  .  .  .  Certainly,  they  are  baptized 
at  the  games  of  Apollo,  and  those  at  Eleusis,  and  this  they  suppose 


RELIGION    IN    CORINTH   AND    GALATIA  163 

much  emphasis  on  this  ceremony^*  but  he  saw  in  it  a 
helpful  symbol  of  the  dying  to  sin  and  living  in  Christ. 
The  going  down  into  the  water  he  called  "  being 
baptized  into  his  death,"  being  "  buried  "  "  with  him," 
being  "  united  with  him  by  the  likeness  of  his  death  " 
in  order  that  "  the  body  of  sin  might  be  done  away." 
The  coming  up  out  of  the  water  suggested  to  his  mind 
the  coming  up  into  unity  with  Christ  "  by  the  likeness 
of  his  resurrection  "  so  that  one  might  "  live  with  him  " 
and  thus  "  walk  in  newness  of  life  "  being  "  alive  unto 
God  in  Christ  Jesus. "^^ 

Like  many  other  religious  communities  of  the  time 
the  new  Christian  brotherhood  of  Corinth  had  also  a 
sacred  feast.^^  It  seems  to  have  been  a  common  meal 
in  which  the  most  sacred  part  was  the  breaking  of 
bread  and  the  drinking  of  a  cup  in  remembrance  of  the 
supper  that  Jesus  ate  with  his  disciples  on  the  night  in 
which  he  was  betrayed.^''     They  thought  of  this  as  a 

they  do  unto  regeneration."  See  ch.  V.  of  P.  Gardner's 
"  Religious  Experience  of  St.  Paul,"  for  further  evidence.  That 
proselytes  were  baptized  when  they  embraced  Judaism,  see 
Schiirer,  "History  of  the  Jews,"  Vol.  2,  p.  29iff. 

6*  See  ch.  XV.,   p.  152. 

^^  Rom.  vi.  2-11.  This  mystical  teaching  is  not  so  fully  ex- 
pressed anywhere  in  Corinthians,  but  is  implied  by  Paul's 
teaching  there.     See  2  Cor.  iv.  10,  etc. 

^6  The  Christian  writer,  Justyn  Martyr,  in  his  "  Apology," 
i.  66,  speaking  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  says  that  there  is  "  The 
same  thing  in  the  mysteries  of  Mythra  also,  .  .  .  for  bread 
and  a  cup  of  water  are  placed  in  the  mystic  rites  for  one  who  is 
to  be  initiated,  with  the  addition  of  certain  words."  The 
inscriptions  and  carvings  remaining  from  Mythraism  also  show 
that  they  kept  a  feast  in  memory  of  the  supper  of  Mythra  with 
the  sun-goJ.  See  "  Mysteries  of  Mythra,"  F.  Cumont,  p.  138 
and  158.  That  Mythraism  spread  even  into  such  isolated 
outposts  of  the  Roman  Empire  as  Britain,  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  a  Mythra  monument  was  found  in  the  old  Roman  wall  of 
London.  It  is  now  in  the  possession  of  Wm.  Ransom,  of  Hitchin. 
Other  religions  also  had  their  sacred  feasts.  The  Mystae  of 
Eleusis  took  a  mixed   drink.      See   Percy  Gardner,   p.    i2off. 

®^  I  Cor.  xi.  17-34.  Whether  Jesus  did  expect  his  disciples 
to  keep  this  supper  "  in  remembrance  "  of  him  is  doubtful  since 


164  THI-:    [.IFH    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

"  comiiiuniuii  ot  the  bluud  "  and  "  of  the  bud\'  of  Christ." 
The  broken  bread  especially  was  a  symbol,  too,  of  the 
unity  of  the  community  in  Christ.  As  the  bread  is 
broken  from  one  loaf,  so  the  "  many  "  who  partake  of 
the  feast  are  "  one  bread,  one  body  "  in  communion 
with  Christ. ^^ 

The  meeting  for  worship  seems  to  have  had  little  or 
no  prc-arrangemcnt  but  to  ha\'e  been  held  in  the  faith 
that,  "To  each  one  is  given  the  manifestation  of  the 
Spirit. "^^-^  These  manifestations  were  not  for  the 
individual  alone,  but  were  for  the  edification  of  the 
brotherhood.  When  they  came  together,  therefore, 
some  contributed  psalms,  some  teachings,  some 
revelations,  some  tongues,  some  interpretations. ^'^ 
There    was    entire    liberty    for    an3'one    to    speak    in 

the  "  words  of  institution  "  which  Paul  uses  here  (verses  24,  25) 
are  not  found  in  the  oldest  Gospel — Mark — and  in  Luke  they  are 
a  late  addition,  since  Westcott  and  Hort  found  that  certain  ancient 
MSS.  do  not  contain  them.  It  is  difficult  to  know  exactly  what 
Paul  means  by  saying,  "  I  received  of  the  Lord  "  (verse  23). 
But,  however  it  originated,  Paul's  churches  kept  a  supper  that 
proclaimed  "  the  Lord's  death,  till  he  come."  See  P.  Gardner's 
"The  Religious  Experience  of  St.  Paul,"  p.  iioff,  for  an 
interesting  study  of  the  problem.  Also  Lake's  "  Early  Epistles," 
p.  2iofi. 

*8  I  Cor.  X.  14-17.  In  the"  Teaching  of  the  Twelve"  Apostles, 
the  earliest  church  liturgy  known,  sect.  9,  a  kindred  idea  is  found 
and  there  is  no  reference  to  the  death  of  Jesus.  Some  of  the  words 
spoken  during  the  breaking  of  bread  were,  "  As  this  broken  bread 
was  scattered  upon  the  mountains  and  gathered  together  became 
one,  so  thou  hast  gathered  thy  Church  from  the  ends  of  the 
earth  into  thy  kingdom." 

^^  I  Cor.  xii.  7. 

''^  I  Cor.  xiv.  26.  The  "  ^5a/m  "  must  have  been  the  chant- 
ing of  praise  or  prayer.  A  well-known  psalm  may  have  been 
used,  but  the  spontaneous  character  of  the  whole  meeting  and 
the  ease  with  which  an  Easterner  expresses  himself  in  poetic 
style  make  it  more  likely  that  it  was  spontaneously  improvised. 
The  "teaching"  was  perhaps  an  explanation  of  an  Old  Testa- 
ment passage  or  a  Sa^dng  of  Jesus.  The  "revelation"  was 
probably  the  communication  of  the  messages  of  the  prophets, 
that  is,  the  preachers.  For  further  discussion  of  the  meaning  of 
these  terms  see  ch.  XVI.,  pp.  180,  181. 


RELIGION    IN    CORINTH    AND    GALATIA  1 65 

the  meeting  who  had  a  gift  that  was  helpful  to 
others.  They  expected  harmony  in  the  meeting  because 
they  were  all  being  led  by  "  the  same  Spirit. '"^i 
It  would  seem  that  there  was  absolute  democracy,  too, 
in  the  management  of  the  brotherhood.  "  In  these 
first  days  ever}'  member  of  the  church  held  office. "72 
There  were  apostles,^^  that  is,  travelling  ministers  ; 
prophets,  those  who  gave  a  direct  message  from  the 
Lord ;  teachers,  probably  those  who  explained  the 
Scripture,  etc.,  etc.^-^  They  did  not  all  attempt  to  do 
the  same  things  ;  each  did  what  he  felt  impelled  to  do, 
and  therefore  could  probably  do  best. 

The  brotherhood  that  grew  out  of  the  preaching 
of  the  Gospel  in  Corinth  was,  then,  one  in  which  there 
was  almost  complete  liberty  for  the  development  of  the 
individual,  safeguarded  only  by  the  fact  of  belonging  to 
a  wide-awake  community.  It  was  also  one  in  which 
there  was  incentive  to  attain  the  highest  standard  of 
spiritual  life,  for  Paul  called  them  not  only  brothers  but 
"  saints.''75 


'1  I  Cor.  xii.  4-1 1. 

'2  R.  H.  Horton,  "  The  Early  Church,"  The  Century  Bible 
Handbook,  p.  4J. 

'^  That  the  term  "  apostle  "  was  applied  to  many  beside  the 
twelve  was  shown  by  the  fact  that  James  and  Barnabas  were 
called  apostles  (Gal.  i.  19  ;  Actsxiii.  i).  There  is  much  evidence, 
too,  in  the  writings  of  the  early  Fathers,  that  "  apostle  "  was  used 
for  all  travelling  prophets. 

^*  I  Cor.  xii.  28-31.  It  is  difficult  to  know  exactly  what  some 
of  the  other  members  of  the  church  did.  Gifts  of  "  govern- 
ments "  were  probably  those  who  had  ability  for  managing 
the  business  side  of  affairs.  Were  "  helps  "  perhaps,  those 
who  considered  themselves  a  committee  to  help  anyone  in  need  ? 
Those  who  had  the  gift  of  healing,  no  doubt,  looked  after  the 
sick.     What    were    the    miracles  ? 

'5  I   Cor.  i.  2. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

Paul's  "  daily  anxiety  "  for  corixth  while  facing 
danger  ix  ephesus. 

"  And  in  the  way  which  leads  from  the  isthmus  of 
Cenchreae  there  is  a  temple  of  Diana,  and  an  ancient 
image  of  wood."  Along  this  way  Paul  and  Priscilla 
and  Aquila^  went  from  Corinth  to  Cenchreae  where  their 
friend  Phoebe  lived  who  was  a  "  servant  of  the  church 
at  Cenchreae. "2  She  seems  to  have  made  her  house  a 
home  for  travelling  Christians,  for  Paul  says : 

"  She  herself  hath  been  a  succourer  of  many,  and  of 
mine  own  self."^ 

Probably  Paul  and  his  friends  spent  a  short  time 
here  when  leaving  Corinth  since  he  takes  time  to  fulfil 
some  kind  of  a  vow.'^  Then,  probably  setting  sail  across 
the  Saronic  Gulf,  passing  Athens  they  launched  forth 
among  the  Greek  Islands  of  the  Aegean  and  going  up 
the  Cayster  river  "  they  came  to  Ephesus  "  which 
Paul  had  passed  by  when  in  Asia  before.  Here  Aquila 
and  Priscilla  take  a  house  and  set  up  their  tent-making 
business.  They  all  receive  a  welcome  at  the  Jewish 
synagogue,  but  Paul  has  his  heart  set  on  a  visit  to  his 
old  friends  in  Caesarea  and  Antioch,  and  the  churches 

1  Acts  xviii.   1 8. 

2  Romans  xvi.  i.  Was  this  church  an  outgrowth  of  the 
Corinth  work  ? 

^  Romans  xvi.  2. 

*  Acts  xviii.  1 8.  It  was  customary  to  let  the  hair  grow  when  a 
vow  was  taken  and  cut  it  off  when  it  was  fulfilled  (Acts  xxi.  24,  26 ; 
Numb.  vi.  5).  It  is  useless  to  try  to  explain  why  Paul  did  this, 
since  we  do  not  know  what  the  vow  was  or  what  led  to  it. 

166 


Paul's  "  daily  anxiety  "  for  corinth        167 

of  Galatia^  to  whom  he  has  recently  written  strong 
warnings  against  adopting  the  Jewish  Law.  While  he 
was  gone  there  appeared  in  Ephesus  an  educated 
Alexandrian  named  ApoUos.  "  Priscilla  and  Aquila  " 
heard  him  set  forth  eloquently  in  the  synagogue  the  things 
concerning  the  Messiah^  ending  with  an  account  of  the 
preaching  of  John  the  Baptist.  Strange  to  say,  he  seems 
not  to  have  heard  that  Jesus  the  Messiah  had  come. 
But  "  Priscilla  and  Aquila  "  invited  him  to  their  home, 
and  explained  this  to  him  and  he  soon  became  an  en- 
thusiastic supporter  of  Jesus  the  ]\Iessiah  against  the 
unbelieving  Jews.  Apollos  went  over  to  Corinth,''' 
and  shortly  after  Paul  travelling  over  land  from  Galatia, 
returned  to  Ephesus.  He  there  dealt  with  twelve 
John  the  Baptist  disciples^  as  Aquila  and  Priscilla  had 
dealt  with  Apollos^.  He  preached  in  the  synagogue, 
and  worked  with  Aquila,  and  once  more  the  tent-making 
workshop  and  the  home  became  centres  for  the  spread  of 
truth.  And  this  even  though  business  was  not  very  pro- 
fitable, for  Paul  describes  his  situation  in  Ephesus  thus : 

"  Even  unto  this  present  hour  we  both  hunger  and 
thirst  and  are  naked  and  are  buffeted  and  have  no 
certain  dwelling-place ;  and  we  toil  with  our  own 
hands."io 

^  Acts  xviii.  19-23.  It  is  not  quite  clear  what  church  Paul 
"  went  up  "  and  saluted,  but  it  can  hardly  have  been  Jerusalem, 
since  his  visit  there  a  little  later  seems  to  be  the  first  since 
the  conference.  See  especially  Acts  xxi.  19.  Probabl}^  Paul 
arranges  on  this  visit  to  Galatia  for  a  collection  to  be  made  for 
Jerusalem  (i  Cor.  xvi.  i). 

^  Acts  xviii.  25.  All  our  texts  read  "  the  things  concerning 
Jesus,"  and  this  has  been  made  the  basis  of  an  extravagant 
theory  that  there  was  a  Jesus-cult  before  the  time  of  Jesus. 
(See  W.  B.  Smith,  Drews,  etc.)  The  phrase  certainly  makes 
no  sense  as  it  stands.  It  seems  inost  likely  that  Luke  has 
written  "  Jesus  "  when  he  meant  "  Messiah,"  because  the  two 
were  one  in  his  mind.    See  Lake's  "  Earlier  Epistles,"  p.  107- 11 1. 

■^  Acts  xviii.  24-28. 

^  This  gives  evidence  that  the  John  the  Baptist  movement  was 
much  stronger  than  might  be  supposed  from  the  Gospels. 

^  Acts  xix.  1-8. 

^^   I   Cor.   iv.    II,   12. 


l68  Tin-     I.IFH    AND    MIMSTKV    OF    PAUL 

In  coming  to  Kphcsus,  Paul  again  enters  a  city  of 
wealth  and  importance,  a  city  full  of  temples  and 
schools  and  lecture  halls.  Again  the  Christian  tent-maker 
dares  to  hope  that  he  can  bring  a  higher  life  to  many 
surrounded  with  culture.'"" 

But  in  the  midst  of  his  Ephesian  work  he  did  not 
forget  Corinth,  for  Paul  "  daily  "  had  "  anxiety  for  all 
the  churches  ''  after  he  left  them,  especially  if  any 
dangers  beset  them.  Fhst,  he  wrote  a  letter  warning 
the  Corinthians  against  making  any  compromise  with 
immorality,  for  that  he  knew  to  be  their  greatest  danger. 
This  letter  is  lost,  but  Paul  refers  to  it  thus : 

"  I  wrote  unto  3'ou  in  my  epistle  to  have  no  company 
with  fornicators. "11 

It  is  quite  possible,  too,  that  we  have  a  fragment  of 
this  letter  in  the  passage  beginning  "Be  ye  not 
unequally  yoked  together  with  unbelievers  ;  for  what 
fellowship  have  righteousness  and  iniquity  ?  What 
agreement  hath  a  temple  of  God  with  idols  ?  For  we 
are  a  temple  of  the  living  God,"  and  ending,  "  Beloved, 
let  us  cleanse  ourselves  from  all  defilement  of  flesh  and 
spirit,  perfecting  holiness  in  the  fear  of  God."!^ 

i"-*  The  ruins  at  Ephesus  show  that  a  splendidly  laid-oiit  city 
flourished  there.  Although  the  beautifully  decorated  library 
recently  excavated,  and  many  of  the  fine  marble  street  decora- 
tions are  from  the  period  just  after  Paul,  the  city  of  his  day 
cannot  have  been  far  different  in  its  main  features.  From  the 
great  theatre  on  the  hill-side  a  broad  colonnaded  street  runs 
straight  out  to  the  harbour.  Parts  of  the  harbour  buildings 
still  remain,  also  ruins  of  a  large  g^Tiinasiinn,  a,  stadium  and  many 
small  temples.  The  ancient  agora  is  only  a  heap  of  stones. 
A  fine  street  wound  out  around  the  hills  to  the  temple  of  Diana. 
The  Austrians  have  done  most  of  the  excavating  and  their 
finds  are  in  Vienna. 

11  I  Cor.  v.  9. 

^2  2  Cor.  vi.  14-vii.  I.  That  this  passage  is  a  part  of  Paul's 
earlier  letter  is  made  probable  not  only  by  the  fitness  of  the 
contents  to  the  reference  in  i  Cor.  v.  9,  but  also  by  the  fact  that 
these  verses  break  the  connection  where  they  stand.  "  Be  ye 
also  enlarged"  (vi.  13),  joins  perfectly  with  "Open  your  hearts 
to  us  "  (vii.  2). 


Paul's  "  daily  anxiety  "  for  corinth       169 

Thus  Paul  attempted  to  keep  alive  in  Corinth  the 
ideal  for  which  he  was  working  also  in  Ephesus.  When 
he  found  that  the  synagogue  did  not  help  his  purposes 
and  the  house  of  Aquila  was  perhaps  too  small,  he 
"  separated  the  disciples,"  and  arranged  to  give  public 
teaching  in  the  "School  of  Tyrannus."  Here  Paul 
must  have  seemed  to  the  citizens  of  Ephesus  like  a 
lecturing  philosopher,  i^  They  would  go  in  to  see  what 
sort  of  wisdom  he  had  to  give.  Exactly  what  Paul 
taught  in  Ephesus  we  have  no  means  of  knowing,  because 
"  Ephesians "  contains  no  reference  to  his  work  in 
Ephesus,  We  have  only  a  brief  note  of  introduction 
written  for  Phoebe  of  Cenchreae  to  the  Ephesians  in 
which  he  warns  them  against  divisions  and  "  occasions  of 
stumbling,  contrary  to  the  doctrine  which  ye  learned. "^^ 
It  is  probable  that  his  teaching  in  Ephesus  was  much 
like  that  in  Corinth  since  it  was  much  the  same  type 
of  city.  Instead  of  Venus,  Ephesus  worshipped  Diana, 
who  was  "  an  embodiment  of  the  fertility  and  pro- 
ductive  power,  of   the   earth."      Although   situated    a 

13  One  MS.  adds  that  Paul  lectured  from  the  fifth  to  the 
tenth  hour. 

^^  Romans  xvi.  17.  That  Romans  xvi.  1-23  was  a  separate 
note  written  to  introduce  Phoebe  to  the  Ephesians  is  a  theory 
that  is  not  proven,  but  is  made  probable  by  the  following 
considerations  : 

(i)  It  is  improbable  that  Paul  knew  so  many  people  in  Rome 
as  Paul  greets  in  ch.  xvi.,  and  the  rest  of  Romans  seems  to  be 
written  to  strangers,  and  has  an  ending  at  ch.  xv. 

(2)  It  does  not  seem  natural  for  Paul  to  warn  the  Romans 
against  departing  from  the  teaching  unless  he  had  given  that 
teaching  himself. 

(3)  The  people  mentioned  are  more  likely  to  be  Ephesians  than 
Romans,  especially  Epaenetus,  the  "  first  fruits  of  Asia,"  and 
Aquila  and  Priscilla  who  were  in  Ephesus  with  Paul  though 
they  had  come  from  Rome  earlier.  For  further  details  see 
Moffatt's  "  N.T.  Intro.,"  p.  i35ff.  For  the  view  that 
Romans  xvi.  was  written  to  Rome,  see  Sanday  and  Headlam's 
Com.  The  chief  point  there  made  is  that  Paul's  disciples  may 
have  travelled  to  Rome  and  Aquila  and  Priscilla  may  have 
travelled  again  to  Rome,  and  that  some  of  the  names  have  been 
found  in  Roman  inscriptions  a;id  may  now  be  seen  in  ancient 
Roman  tombs. 


170  THJ-:    LIFE    AND    MIMSTKY   OF    PAUL 

mile  from  the  city,  the  great  temple  of  Diana^''  was 
the  centre  of  Ephcsian  life  and  ricli  gifts  were  brougiit 
to  the  goddess  by  pilgrims  from  many  cities. 

That  PauTs  work  in  l^^phesus  lirought  him  into  great 
danger  is  shown  by  the  following  words  : 

"If  after  the  manner  of  men  I  fonght  with  beasts^^ 
at  Ephesus,  what  doth  it  profit  me  ?  If  the  dead  are 
not  raised,  let  ns  eat  and  drink,  for  to-morrow  we  die." 

Does  he  mean  that  he  was  actnally  thrown  to  the  beasts 
in  the  Ephesus  stadium,  or  is  he  referring  to  inhuman 
treatment  of  his  enemies  ?  At  any  rate,  he  there 
maintains  his  conception  of  life  against  terrible  odds. 
He  is  convinced  that  the  dead  still  live,  for  Jesus  still 
lives,  and  this  means  that  true  life  is  much  more  than 
the  life  of  the  body  .  .  .  that  though  the  "  outward 
man  ' '  is  destro37ed.  the  ' '  inward  man  is  renewed  day  by 
day."!"^  He  is  therefore  willing  to  fight  with  beasts 
if  by  so  doing  he  is  able  to  preserve  this  Gospel  of  the 
eternal  power  of  the  inner  life  and  destroy  the  utter 
heathenism  which  sees  nothing  in  life  but  the  bod}'  whose 
motto  is,  "  Let  us  eat  and  drink,  for  to-morrow  we  die.''^^ 

In  Ephesus,  then,  Paul  either  fought  with 
beasts  or  wdth  beasts  of  men  in  defence  of  the 
greatness  of  life.  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  too,  had  their 
share    of   persecution    perhaps  at   this   time,i^    for    in 

15  Diana  is  the  Latin  name  given  to  the  ancient  goddess  of 
the  land.  The  Greeks  called  her  Artemis.  Some  of  the  ancient 
coins  have  pictures  of  her.  The  temple  of  Diana  was  long 
searched  for  and  finally  found  by  J.  T.  Wood  in  1869.  Since 
then  the  site  has  been  still  more  thoroughly  excavated  and 
parts  of  still  older  temples  have  been  found.  The  finest  frag- 
ments of  the  temples  are  in  the  "  Ephesus  Room  "  at  the  British 
Museum.  Nos.  1200-1233  are  parts  of  the  temple  of  Paul's 
day.      A  tenple  of  Diana  is  now  being  uncovered  in  Sardis. 

16  I  Cor.  XV.  32.  On  the  probability  that  Paul  fought  in  the 
arena,  see  McGiifert's  "  Apostolic  Age,"  p.  280ft. 

"  2  Cor.  iv.   16. 

1^  A  motto  like  this  was  on  an  ancient  monument  near  Tarsus. 
See  ch.  VII.,  p.  73. 

t-  1^  It  is  impossible  to  be  sure  whether  it  was  here  or  in  the 
persecutions  that  later  drove  Paul  out  of  Ephesus  that  these 
friends  suffered  for  him. 


PAUL  S         DAILY    ANXIETY        FOR    CORINTH  I7I 

his  note  of  introduction  to  the  Ephesians,  Paul  says, 
"  Salute  Prisca  and  Aquila,  my  fellow-workers  in  Jesus 
Christ,  who  for  my  life  laid  down  their  own  necks  ;  unto 
whom  not  only  I  give  thanks  but  all  the  churches  of  the 
Gentiles."20 

Two  other  people  who  suffered  with  Paul  are  mentioned 
in  the  following  : 

"  Salute  Andronicus  and  Junias,  my  kinsmen,  and  my 
fellow-prisoners,  who  are  of  note  among  the  apostles. "-^ 

When  and  how  did  Priscilla  and  Aquila  risk  their 
lives  for  Paul  ?  Why  were  Andronicus  and  Junias  in 
prison  with  him  ?  There  is  no  definite  answer  to  these 
questions.  Our  records  are  fragmentary  at  this  point, 
but  they  are  certain,  for  Paul  could  not  be  mistaken 
either  about  these  sufferings  of  his  friends  for  him  or 
about  his  own  fighting  with  beasts.  Thus  the  heroism 
of  Paul  and  his  friends  shines  through  even  the  holes  in 
our  records. 

But  again  in  the  midst  of  strenuous  work  in  one  city 
Paul  has  to  deal  with  serious  danger  in  the  church  of 
another  city.  News  reaches  him  from  Corinth  which 
causes  him  to  write  a  second  letter  in  which  he  sa3's  : 

"  It  is  actually  reported  that  there  is  fornicati'on  among 
you  .  .  .  and  ye  are  puffed  up  and  did  not  rather 
mourn.  "22 

His  previous  letter^^  had  been  misunderstood,  and  he 
had  been  supposed  to  council  no  association  whatever 
with  the  wicked.  In  the  letter  which  Paul  nextwrites^^^ 
he  corrects  this  misunderstanding  and  admits  that 
then  one  must  "  needs  go  out  of  the  world."  But 
he  does  maintain  that  the  community  of  brethren  must 
be   kept   pure.^^     He   reminds   them   that   wickedness 

2"  Rom.  xvi.   3,  4. 

^^  Rom.  xvi.  7.  22   J  Qqj.    ^    J 

^^  Lake's  suggestion  that  this  early  letter  (see  p.  168)  be  called 
"  the  previous  letter  "  seems  a  good  one. 

^^^  1  Cor.  is  Paul's  next  letter,  though  he  sends  Timothy  on  a 
mission  to  Corinth  first.      See  p.  175. 

^*  I  Cor,  V.   10,    II. 


172  TlIJi    Lllli    AND    MIMSTKV    OF    PAUL 

Sj)reacls  through  a  coniniunit\-  like  leaven  and  that  since 
Christ  "  our  passover  hath  been  sacrificed  "  we  ought  to 
have  no  leaven  at  all  in  our  communities,  but  eat  only 
the  "  unleaven  bread  of  sincerity  and  truth. "^^ 

He  advised  them  to  gather  the  community  together 
to  decide  what  to  do  with  the  one  who  had  brought 
uncleanliness  into  the  Christian  brotherhood.  He  tells 
them  to  remember  that  though  he  is  "  absent  in  bod\'  " 
he  will  be  "  present  in  spirit  "  "  with  the  power  of  our 
Lord  Jesus,"  and  that  his  decision  will  be  "to  deliver 
such  an  one  unto  Satan  for  the  destruction  of  the  llesh, 
that  the  spirit  may  be  saved. "^^  Paul  felt  that  it  was 
mistaken  kindness  to  keep  a  wrong-doer  in  the  com- 
munity ;  even  though  casting  him  out  meant  putting 
him  where  he  would  have  worse  influences,  where, 
indeed,  he  would  seem  to  be  given  over  entirely  to  the 
power  of  Satan.  Nevertheless  that  would  be  the  only 
hope  of  saving  him.  It  was  necessary  for  the  offender 
to  learn  definitely  that  he  could  not  be  named  a 
"brother"  and  be  an  evil-doer.  So  long  as  he  persisted 
in  defending  his  sin  the  brethren  of  the  communit}^  ought 
not  so  much  as  to  eat  with  him.^^  This  drastic  action 
was  with  the  hope  of  saving  the  spirit  of  the  sinner, 
and  of  keeping  the  community  undefiled.  This  shows 
that  the  fundamental  basis  on  which  Paul  was  estab- 
lishing these  early  Christian  communities  was  a  high 
type  of  life. 

Another  point  in  which  Paul  hears  that  they  are 
falling  below  the  standard  is  in  the  fact  that  "  brother 
goeth  to  law  with  brother."^^     This,  he  says,  is  "  utterly 

^'^  I  Cor.  V.  6-8.  Paul  is  evidently  speaking  figuratively  here. 
Leaven  equals  wickedness.  Just  as  all  leaven  had  to  be  put  out 
of  the  houses  for  the  Passover  feast  (Ex.  xii.  19),  so  in  the  new 
era  introduced  by  Christ  there  should  be  no  wickedness. 

2"  I  Cor.  V.   3-5. 

2'  I  Cor.  V.   11-13. 

^^  I  Cor.  vi.  i-ii.  The  introduction  of  this  subject  in 
connection  with  the  case  of  fornication  makes  one  wonder  whether 
any  law-suit  had  arisen  out  of  that.  In  verse  12  Paul  returns 
again  to  the  subject  of  fornication. 


Paul's  "  daily  anxiety  '    for  corinth        173 

a  fault."  They  ought  to  be  able  to  "  judge  t»hings  per- 
taining to  this  life  "or  it  would  even  be  better  to  "  take 
wrong  "  and  be  "  defrauded  "  than  to  quarrel  and  make 
their  quarrels  public.  They  who  have  been  "  washed  " 
and"  sanctified"  and  "justified  "  in  the  name  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  ought  to  be  living  up  to  such  a  high  standard 
that  they  would  not  count  everything  "  expedient  " 
that  is  "  lawful."  They  should  know  that  even  "  the 
body  is  .  .  .  for  the  Lord,"  and  therefore  holy, 
indeed,  "  a  temple  of  the  Holy  Spirit."  They  ought  to 
remember  that  this  purified  standard  of  life  has  been 
purchased  at  a  great  price,  and  should,  therefore,  be 
carefully  maintained. ^^ 

Probably  the  report  which  called  forth  these  words  of 
Paul's  was  brought  by  those^o  "  of  the  household  of 
Chloe,"  at  least  they  are  the  ones  who  bring  the  in- 
formation which  Paul  deals  with  in  the  first  part  of  his 
letter,  namely,  that  the  Corinthian  church  is  being  split 
into  various  parties.^i  Apollos  had  been  working  in 
Corinth  for  some  time  after  he  left  Ephesus,  and  Paul 
approved  of  his  work,  for  he  said  that  Apollos  watered 
the  seed  that  he  himself  had  planted. ^2  Apollos,  then, 
had  not  intentionally  gathered  a  party  of  personal 
followers,  but,  nevertheless,  an  Apollos  party  had  arisen. ^^ 
The  fact  that  Paul  emphasizes  that  his  own  preaching 
was  "  not  in  wisdom  of  words  "^^  makes  it  probable  that 
some  people  had  declared  themselves  disciples  of  Apollos 
because  he  spoke  in  the  philosophical  language  of  the 

-^   I   Cor.  vi.   12-20. 

^^  Of  course  "  those  of  Chloe  "  may  have  reported  only  the 
divisions,  and  later  someone  else  may  have  reported  the  case  of 
fornication,  but  it  is  just  as  probable  that  they  reported  both. 

^^  I  Cor.  i.  10,  II.  There  is  no  other  mention  of  Chloe,  but  the 
reference  here  indicates  that  servants  of  hers  came  to  Ephesus 
and  reported  about  Corinth.  Probably  she  was  a  wealthy 
woman  of  Corinth. 

^2  I  Cor.  iii.  6. 

^^  I  Cor.  i.  12.  See  ch.  XVI.,  p.  183,  for  further  evidence  that 
Paul  had  no  blame  for  Apollos. 

^*  I   Cor.  i.    17,  and  ii.    i. 


174  thp:  life  and  ministry  of  paul 

great  university  at  Alexandria,  where  he  probably  had 
studied. 

But  there  was  also  a  Cephas  party.  How  did  that 
arise  ?  Did  Peter  visit  Corinth  as  he  had  visited 
Antioch  ?  It  is  quite  possible  that  he  did^-*  but  there 
is  no  evidence  that  he  advocated  the  Law  as  he  did  in 
Antioch.  The  difficulty,  at  any  rate,  seems  to  have 
been  that  some  people  decided  to  take  Peter  as  their 
leader  rather  than  Paul.'^''  Then,  there  was  also  a 
party  loyal  to  Paul.  But  Paul  never  wanted  any- 
one to  belong  to  a  Paul  party  ;  he  wanted  them  to 
belong  to  God  and  Christ. ^^  He  did,  indeed,  want  the 
love  of  his  "  beloved  children,"  for  though  they  should 
have  "  ten  thousand  tutors  in  Christ,"  yet  would  they 
never  have  another  "  father."'^^  Nevertheless,  he  asks 
no  one  to  honour  him  except  as  a  minister  of  Christ  and 
steward  of  the ' '  mysteries  of  God."^^ 

"  What,  then,  is  Apollos  ?  "  he  cries,  "  and  what  is 
Paul  ?  Ministers  through  whom  ye  have  believed. 
I  planted,  Apollos  watered;  but  God  gave  the  increase  ; 
we  are  God's  f ellow- workers. "*o 

^5  We  know  almost  nothing  about  Peter  after  his  return  to 
Jerusalem  from  Antioch.  but  there  are  traditions  that  he  went  to 
Rome  and  Dionysius,  bishop  of  Corinth  in  the  second  century,  said 
that  Peter  visited  Corinth,  but  he  may  have  had  no  other  evidence 
than  this  passage  in  i  Corinthians.  His  words  are  quoted  by 
Eusebius  in  his  church  history,  II.,  xxv.  8. 

^^  Of  course  they  may  have  done  this  without  Peter's  having 
been  in  Corinth. 

"  I  Cor.  iii.  g,  ii,  23.  In  i  Cor.  i.  12  we  have  the  words  "  And 
I  am  of  Christ,"  just  as  though  there  were  also  a  Christ-party 
in  Corinth,  but  as  there  is  no  other  reference  to  it  in  i  Cor.,  and 
as  Paul  tells  them  all  that  they  are  Christ's,  there  can  hardly  have 
been  a  Christ-party  there  of  which  he  did  not  approve.  It  is 
possible  that  the  text  should  be  punctuated  as  follows  :  "  and 
I  of  Cephas, — but  I  am  of  Christ  !  "  In  which  case  it  would 
be  Paul  declaring  that  he  belonged  to  Christ.  See  also 
p.  185  and  for  further  discussion  see  Lake — "  Early  Epistles," 
p.   I27ff. 

^^   I  Cor.  iv.    14,    15. 

^^  I   Cor.  iv.    I. 

^"   I   Cor.  iii.   5-9. 


PAUL  S        DAILY   ANXIETY        FOR    CORINTH  I75 

"  Wherefore  let  no  one  glory  in  men.  For  all  things 
are  yours  ;  whether  Paul  or  Apollos  or  Cephas,  or  the 
world,  or  life,  or  death,  or  things  present,  or  things  to 
come  ;  all  are  yours  ;  and  ye  are  Christ's  ;  and  Christ 
is  God's."4i 

Chloe's  report  makes  Paul  feel  that  he  must  send 
some  help  to  Corinth  ;  and,  preferring  a  personal 
messenger  to  a  written  letter,  he  sends  "  Timothy, 
who,"  he  says  in  the  letter  written  soon  after,  "  is  my 
beloved  and  faithful  child  in  the  Lord,  who  shall  put 
you  in  remembrance  of  my  ways  which  be  in  Christ. "^^ 

Apparently  not  long  after  Timothy  had  been  sent  off, 
Stephanas,  Fortunatus  and  Achaicus  arrived  from 
Corinth^^  bringing  a  letter  from  the  Corinthian  church. ^^ 
This  letter  from  the  Corinthians  to  Paul  is  lost,  but  part 
of  it  can  be  recovered  by  noting  that  Paul  is  evidently 
answering  points  raised  by  them  in  passages  such  as 
those  beginning,  "  Now  concerning."     They  asked  him : 

Concerning  marriage  and  divorce  (i  Cor.  vii.  1-24). 

Concerning  virgins  (i  Cor.  vii.  25-38). 

Concerning  things  sacrificed  to  idols  (i  Cor.  viii.  i 
to  xi.  i). 

Concerning  spiritual  gifts  (i  Cor.  xii.  i  to  xiv.  40). 

Concerning  the  collection  (i  Cor.  xvi.  i-ii). 

Concerning  Apollos  (i  Cor.  xvi.  12). 
They  may  also  have  asked  about  the  other  subjects 
with  which  Paul  here  deals,  which  are  : 

Women  in  worship  (xi.  2-11,  16  ;   xiv.  34-36). 

The  Lord's  Supper  (xi.  17-34). 

The  resurrection  (xv.  1-58). 

People  who  adopt  new  ideals  often  attempt  to  practise 

^^   I   Cor.  iii.  21-23. 

^2  I  Cor.  iv.  17.  Probably  it  is  this  visit  that  Luke  refers 
to  in  Acts  xix.  22,  although  he  does  not  sa^^  that  Timothy  went 
on  through  Macedonia  to  Corinth.  But  Luke  tells  nothing  of 
these  Corinthian  difficulties. 

*^  I  Cor.  xvi.   17. 

**  I  Cor.  vii.  I.  There  is  no  definite  statement  that  they 
brought  the  letter. 


iy6  TMK    I.IFK    AND    MINISTKY   OF    PAUL 

them  in  extreme  and  unnatural  forms.  When  the 
Corinthians  adopted  PauTs  ideal  of  absolute  purity  they 
went  to  the  extreme  of  thinking  marriage  impure.  Some 
thought  that  husbands  and  wives  ought  to  separate, 
and  that  virgins  certainly  ought  not  to  degrade  them- 
selves by  marrying.  Paul  expresses  his  disapproval 
of  divorce  by  (Quoting  words  from  Jesus  against  it,*^ 
but  on  the  other  hand,  his  advice  concerning  marriage 
does  not  reflect  the  high  ideal  which  Jesus  held,  expressed 
by  his  words  beginning,  "  What  God  hath  joined  to- 
gether." Paul  definitely  sa^^s  that  the  unmarried  state  is 
the  higher, -^^  though  he  claims  the  right  to  "  lead  about  a 
wife  "  if  he  wishes,47  and  advises  the  Corinthians  to 
remain  in  whatever  state  they  find  themselves  whether 
married  or  unmarried.  Xo  doubt  Paul's  views  are 
considerably  influenced  by  his  belief  that  there  will  be 
only  a  short  time  before  the  new  era  will  dawn  in  which 
marriage  will  not  exist. *^  But  note  that  he  stands  for 
greater  liberty  of  action  than  do  the  Corinthians. 

The  liberty  of  those  who  "  walk  in  the  spirit  "  to  act 
according  to  their  own  conscience  was  maintained  b}' 
Paul  in  his  reply  to  the  question  about  eating  meat 
offered  to  idols.*^  Of  course,  since  idols  are  nothing, 
eating  meat  dedicated  to  them  can  do  no  harm  to 
the  individual.  But  Paul  brings  forward  another 
principle — suppose  this  ''  liberty  of  yours  becomes 
a  stumbling-block"  to  a  less  enlightened  brother. 
In  such  case  "  I  will  eat  no  flesh  for  evermore,"  says 
Paul  and  gives  several  examples  of  liberty  which  he 
had  refused  to  use  for  the  sake  of  others.  As  an  apostle 
was  he  not  free  to  eat  and  drink  what  he  thought  best  ?  ^^ 

*^  I   Cor.  vii.    lo,  ii  ;    Mark  x.  9-12. 

•'^  I  Cor.  vii.,  especially  5,  8,  9. 

*'  I  Cor.  ix.  4.  Whether  Paul  had  ever  been  married  it  is 
difficult  to  determine.  In  Ephesians  marriage  is  used  as  a  figure 
of  the  relation  of  Christ  and  the  Church.  This  shows  a  high 
idea  of  marriage.     See  ch.  XIX.,  p.  235. 

*^  I  Cor.  vii.  29  ;    compare  ]\Iark  xii.  25. 

*'  I   Cor.  viii. 

^0   I   Cor.  ix. 


Paul's  "  daily  anxiety      for  corinth       177 

Certainly  he  was  free  to  demand  support  while  he  was 
preaching,  for  even  the  Old  Testament  said  that  the 
ox  should  not  be  muzzled  while  threshing  and  Jesus 
said  that  preachers  of  the  Gospel  should  "  live  by  the 
Gospel."  51  Nevertheless  Paul  chose  not  to  use  this 
liberty  of  his  lest  it  should  be  a  stumbling-block  to 
some.  He  preferred  to  "  make  the  Gospel  without 
charge  "  that  he  might  "  gain  the  more,"  indeed,  he  did 
"all  things  for  the  Gospel's  sake."  Ought  not  this  to  be 
the  principle  on  which  the  Corinthians  should  decide 
the  question  of  eating  meats  ?  The  Gospel  is  the  goal. 
Even  as  the  athletes  in  the  Corinthian  games  make  all 
circumstances  bend  toward  the  winning  of  the  goal, 
so  the  Corinthian  Christians  ought  to  make  all  lesser 
matters  contribute  to  the  winning  of  the  Gospel  for 
themselves  and  others.  And  no  one  is  safe  unless  he 
keeps  in  training  all  the  time.^^  Even  some  of  the 
"  fathers  "  who  had  the  same  "  spiritual  meat  "  and 
"  spiritual  drink  "  fell. 

"  Wherefore  let  him  that  thinketh  he  standeth  take 
heed  lest  he  fall." 

"  Flee  from  idolatiy."  Those  who  have  communion 
with  Christ  in  the  "  cup  of  blessing,"  and  the  breaking 
of  bread  at  the  "  table  of  the  Lord  "  cannot  "  have 
communion  with  devils  "  by  sitting  at  the  "  table  of 
devils."  5^  And  even  if  one  does  not  partake  of  the  idol 
feasts  as  a  worshipper,^*  but  knows  that  the  food  has 

^1  This  seems  to  be  Paul's  free  statement  of  the  words  found  in 
Matt.  X.  10  and  Luke  x.  7,  which  were  probably  in  the  book  of 
Sayings  embedded  in  the  Gospels  of  both  Matthew  and  Luke. 

^^   I  Cor.  ix.    i-x.   13. 

^*  I  Cor.  x.  13-xi.  I.  The  idea  that  partaking  of  food  conse- 
crated to  a  god  was  having  communion  with  the  god  was  wide- 
spread. One  of  the  papyri  recently  found  in  Egypt  speaks 
of  "  the  table  of  the  Lord  Serapis."  See  Deissman,  "  Light  from 
the  East,"  p.  355. 

^*  Probably  Paul  means  that  if  one  goes  to  an  idol  feast  as  a 
worshipper  he  has  communion  with  devils  because  he  believes 
the  idols  to  be  something.  But  the  words  as  they  stand  sound 
as  though  Paul  thought  idols  were  devils,  though  he  has  said  in 
viii.  4  that  an  idol  is  nothing. 


jyS>  Till:  I  li-i:  and  mimstkv  of  i'ahl 

been  sacrificed  to  idols  it  is  better  not  to  eat  because  it 
may  offend  some  one  else.     The  great  principle  is  : 

"  Let  no  man  seek  his  own,  but  each  his  neighbour's 
good."  55 

One  side  of  the  problem  that  Paul  does  not  consider 
here  but  which  he  nevertheless  gives  some  light  upon  is, 
which  of  two  courses  before  me  will  be  for  the  good  of 
the  greater  number  of  my  neighbours  ?  If  some  are 
offended  because  I  eat  and  others  because  I  am  so  narrow- 
minded  as  not  to  eat,  how  shall  I  steer  my  course  between 
these  two  possible  offences  ?  For  all  such  difficult 
questions  Paul  does  lay  down  a  comprehensive  prin- 
ciple, though  he  does  not  point  out  its  full  application. 
In  seeking  your  "  neighbour's  good "  keep  as  3'our 
standard  the  "  glory  of  God,"  that  is,  the  ideal  purpose 
of  God  which  is  being  worked  out  in  His  kingdom.  In 
doubtful  cases  act  in  the  way  that  seems  most  clearly 
in  accordance  with  the  ideal  principles  of  the  Gospel,  and 
it  will  result  in  the  "  profit  of  the  many,"  for  the  "  glory 
of  God  "  must  be  in  accordance  with  my  "  neighbour's 
good." 

"  Whether,  therefore,  3^e  eat  or  drink,  or  whatsoever 
ye  do,  do  all  to  the  glory  of  God."  ^6 

Did  Paul  act  according  to  this  principle  in  giving 
advice  concerning  women  in  worship  ?  He  certainly 
believed  that  the  liberty  of  the  Gospel  extended  to 
women,  for  he  said  : 

"  There  can  be  neither  Jew  nor  Gre^k,  there  can  be 
neither  bond  nor  free,  there  can  be  no  male  and  female  ; 
for  ye  are  all  one  in  Christ  Jesus."  ^7 

Yet  when  a  difficult  situation  arises  in  Corinth  he 
writes  : 

"  I  would  have  you  know  that  the  head  of  every 
man  is  Christ  ;    and  the  head  of  every  woman  is  the 

^^  I  Cor.  X.  24. 
^^  I  Cor.  X.  31. 
"  Gal.  iii.  28;    compare  Col.  iii.  10,  11. 


PAUL  S        DAILY   ANXIETY        FOR   CORINTH  1 79 

man,"  ^^  "  J^et  the  women  keep  silence  in  the  churches, 
for  it  is  not  permitted  unto  them  to  speak  .  .  let 
them  be  in  subjection,  as  also  saith  the  Law."  ^^ 

But  why  should  Paul  apply  the  Law  to  women  if  he 
preached  the  Gospel  to  them  ?  Certainly  he  had  found 
many  of  them  responsive  and  helpful  in  his  work,  though 
some  are  now  troublesome  in  Corinth.  Apparently  he 
considered  it  allowable  for  women  to  speak  in  the 
churches  if  their  heads  were  veiled,  and  apparently 
they  did  prophesy  and  pray.^^  But  Paul's  words,  as 
they  stand,  are  contradictory  and  it  is  therefore 
impossible  to  know  exactly  what  his  attitude  toward 
women's  ministry  was,  though  the  later  Church  has 
chose  to  take  the  legalistic  Jewish  utterances  as  the  true 
expression  of  Paul  and  even  as  authoritative.  The  fact 
is  that  Paul  was  not  ready,  and  the  world  was  yet  un- 
prepared for  the  great  social  changes  which  would 
naturally  flow  from  his  Gospel.  He  expected  the  woman 
and  the  slave  to  keep  their  subordinate  positions,  but 
to  live  above  them  in  their  spirits,  and  this  was  all  that 
it  was  possible  to  attain  in  his  age.^i  No  doubt  his 
failure  to  look  for  social  changes  was  due  to  his  ex- 
pectation that  the  Kingdom  would  soon  appear  and 
inaugurate  an  era  when  all  things  would  be  in 
accordance  with  the  Gospel. 

^^  I  Cor.  xi.  3. 

^^  I  Cor.  xiv.  34.  The  Greek  word  for  "  speak  "  here  cannot 
be  shown  to  mean  merely  that  the  women  are  not  permitted  to 
"  babble,"  that  is,  to  whisper  or  speak  in  an  undignified  manner. 
The  same  word  for  "  speak  "  is  used,  for  instance,  in  xiv.  29, 
referring  to  the  prophets. 

^^  Of  course,  all  respectable  eastern  women  were  veiled  when 
they  appeared  in  public,  though  the  Greek  women  of  Corinth 
would  have  hardly  covered  their  faces.  They  probably  wore 
veils  over  their  heads.  That  Paul  had  always  seen  women 
veiled  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  Dion  Chrysostom,  a  half-century 
later,  found  the  women  of  Tarsus  still  veiled.  He  speaks  of  it 
in  his  "  Tarsus  Oration."  See  Ramsay — "  Cities  of  St.  Paul," — 
Tarsus. 

^^  I  Cor.  vii.  17-24.  What  a  remarkable  historical  develop- 
ment it  is  that  Paul' swords  to  the  Corinthians  should  for  twenty 
centuries  keep  women's  heads  covered  in  church  ! 


l8o  THK    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

The  fundamental  i)rinciple  of  jnitting  first  one's 
"  neighbour's  good  "  wliich,  as  we  have  seen,  Paul  re- 
iterates in  this  letter,  had,  unha]:)pily,  been  disregarded 
on  the  occasion  of  the  partaking  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 
The  fellowship  with  one  another  and  with  Christ  which 
they  ought  to  have  enjoyed  was  entirely  destroyed  by 
the  selfish  and  rude  way  in  which  some  ate  before  others, 
and  left  no  food  for  those  who  came  late.  Paul  pointed 
out  that  it  was  a  serious  thing  to  thus  "  eat  the  bread  " 
and  "  drink  the  cup  of  the  Lord  unworthily." 

In  the  meeting  for  worship  also  the  relationship  of  the 
individuals  taking  ])art  became  a  problem.  There  was  a 
tendency  to  consider  some  of  the  "  gifts  "  more  im- 
portant than  others  and  even  to  say  that  some  of  the 
smaller  services  were  not  needed  at  all.  But  Paul 
asks  them  to  remember  that  they  are  all  "  one 
body."  62  No  one,  then,  should  undervalue  his  own 
small  gift  for, 

"If  the  foot  shall  say,  Because  I  am  not  the  head 
I  am  not  of  the  body  ;  it  is  not,  therefore,  not  of  the 
body."  Nor  should  the  more  gifted  depreciate  their 
lesser  brethren,  for, 

"  The  eye  cannot  say  to  the  hand,  I  have  no  need  of 
thee.  .  .  Nay,  rather,  those  members  of  the  body 
which  seem  to  be  more  feeble  are  necessary." 

Indeed,  it  was  one  of  the  "gifts"  that  was  con- 
sidered most  "  honourable  "  that  was  causing  most 
trouble  in  Corinth.  The  people  who  spoke  with 
"  tongues  "  spoke  a  senseless  jargon  that  no  one  could 
understand. 6^ 

"  But  now,  brethren,"  writes  Paul,  "  if  I  come  unto 
you  speaking  with  tongues,   what  shall  I   profit  you, 

^^  I  Cor.  xii.    12-27. 

^•^  I  Cor.  xiv.  1-33.  That  some  people  thought  they  could 
understand  the  "  tongues  "  is  shown  by  the  mention  of  inter- 
preters. Tlie  mention  of  tongues  of  angels  (xiii.  i),  reflects  the 
popular  idea  that  one  could  come  under  the  influence  of 
supernatural  beings  and  speak  their  language.  Here  again 
Paul  shares  a  mistaken  idea  of  his  time  in  his  belief  in  tongues. 


Paul's  "  daily  anxiety  "  for  corinth       i8i 

unless  I  speak  to  you  by  way  of  revelation,  or  of  know- 
ledge, or  of  prophesying,  or  of  teaching."  "  I  would 
rather  speak  five  words  with  my  understanding,  that  I 
might  instruct  others  also,  than  ten  thousand  words 
in  a  tongue."^* 

Edification  then,  actual  building  up  of  others,  should 
be  the  aim  of  every  contribution  when  all  "  come  to- 
gether." Words  and  phrases  used  which  are  not 
understood  by  the  rest  of  the  worshippers  have  no  place 
at  all  in  such  a  meeting.  The  unlearned  ought,  at  least, 
to  be  able  to  understand  enough  to  say  "  Amen,"  and 
a  stranger  coming  in  ought  to  feel  that  he  is  in  the 
presence  of  God  where  the  very  "  secrets  of  his  heart 
are  made  manifest."  But  this  could  be,  only  if  all 
things  were  "  done  unto  edifying  "  and  "  decently  and 
in  order."  Therefore  the  psalms,  teachings  or  revela- 
tions which  various  ones  contributed  should  be  offered 
in  turn. 

"  If  a  revelation  be  made  to  another  sitting  by,  let 
the  first  keep  silence  "  ;  while  some  prophesy  "  let 
the  others  discern."  ^^ 

But  all  these  difficulties  arising  out  of  the  failure  to 
have  the  right  regard  for  others  could  be  settled  for 
ever  by  love.  Therefore  love  is  the  greatest  gift,  and 
it  is  to    men    and    women    who    especially    need  this 

and  here  again  his  high  and  practical  standard  of  judging  things 
by  their  value  for  upbuilding  kept  the  wrong  belief  from  doing 
him  harm.  There  are  phenomena  to-day  somewhat  like  the 
ecstatic  speaking  in  Corinth.  Persons  in  this  state  are  known 
to  have  spoken  in  languages  that  they  did  not  know  in  their 
normal  state — but  generally,  if  not  always,  it  is  a  language 
which  they  have  heard  at  some  time  and  their  sub-conscious- 
ness has  remembered.  For  further  discussion  see  Lake's 
"  Earlier  Epistles,"  p.  241  ff. 

^  2  Cor.  xiv.  6,   19. 

«5  It  would  seem  that  Paul  thought  that  it  would  be  possible 
for  two  or  three  to  speak  at  once  (xiv.  27,  29).  But  most 
westerners  would  think  that  one  at  a  time  is  sufficient.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  that  Paul  especially  valued  the  gift  of  prophecy 
because  of  its  power  to  give  edification,  comfort,  consolation. 
I  Cor.  xiv.  1-3.     See  ch.  XIV.,  pp.  164,  165. 


1 82  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

teacliing    that    Paul    now  pours   out    his   great    Hxnin 
to    Love,    beginning, 

"  If   I   speak  with   the   tongues  of    men    and   of 
angels, 
But  have  not  love, 

I  am  become  sounding  brass 
Or  a  clanging  cymbal. 

And  if  1  have  the  gift  of  prophecy, 
And  know  all  mysteries  and  all  knowledge  ; 
And  if  I  have  all  faith, 
So  as  to  remove  mountains, 
But  have  not  love, 
I  am  nothing. 

And  if  I  share  out  all  my  goods,  morsel  by 
morsel, 
And  if  I  give  my  body  to  be  burned, 
But  have  not  love, 

It  profiteth  me  nothing.  "^6 

One  doctrinal  subject  Paul  thought  it  worth  while 
to  treat  ;  the  resurrection  both  of  Christ  and  of  others 
seemed  to  him  fundamental,  because  the  hope  of 
immortality  entirely  changes  the  aspect  of  life  in  the 
present  as  well  as  for  the  future^''.  But  note  that  it  is 
not  the  resurrection  of  the  body  that  he  considers  im- 
portant,^^  but  the  supremacy  of  the  life-giving  spirit — 
of  "  that  which  is  spiritual."  Just  as  he  believed  in  the 
reality  and  power  of  Faith,  Hope  and  Love,  so  he 
believed  in  the  immortality  of  the  personalities  ex- 
pressing those  qualities — in  the  person  of  Jesus,  there- 
fore, above  all.  Before  such  spiritual  powers  sin  cannot 
stand^^  nor  even  death. "^"^  Such  faith  in  the  spirit  is, 
indeed,  fundamental  to  the  Gospel  of  the  Spirit.  Lives 
lived  in  the  power  of  the  "  life-giving  spirit  "  are  sure 

^°  I  Cor.  xiii.  The  translation  here  given  is  Prof.  Deissman's 
published  in  his  "  St.  Paul,"  pp.  181-183.  For  the  rest  of  his 
translation  of  the  chapter,  see  p.  192  and  p.  246. 

""  I  Cor.  XV.   12-32.  '^^  I  Cor.  xv.  46,  50. 

^'^  I  Cor.  XV.  S3>  34'  '^  i  Cor.  xv.  55. 


Paul's  ''daily  anxiety"  for  corinth       183 

of  immortality  and  "victory  through  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ. "71 

Paul  now  draws  this  long  letter  to  a  close  by  telling  the 
Corinthians  how  to  make  a  collection  for  him  to  take 
to  Jerusalem  ;  by  asking  them  to  receive  Timothy, 
who,  it  seems,  may  not  yet  have  reached  Corinth, ^2  and 
to  send  him  in  peace  back  to  Ephesus  ;  and  by  explaining 
that  Apollos  feels  that  he  cannot  return  to  Corinth^^ 
at  present  though  he  will  come  later.  Paul  also  tells 
them  that  he  will  come  to  them  "  shortly  "  after  he 
has  finished  his  work  in  Ephesus,  and  has  passed  through 
Macedonia.7*  He  will  then  attend  to  the  case  of  those 
who  are  "  puffed  up  "  and  will  perhaps  spend  the  winter 
in  Corinth. 75 

With  the  hope  that  the  Corinthians  will  yet  prove 
themselves  "  strong  "  by  facing  their  difficulties  in  the 
true  spirit  he  again  urges  love  as  the  one  solving  power  : 

"  Let  all  that  ye  do  be  done  in  love. "76 

With  his  own  hand  he  writes  the  final  salutation 
assuring  them  of  his  love  : 

"  My  love  be  with  you  all  in  Christ  Jesus." 


'1  I  Cor.  XV.  57,  58.  It  is  probable  that  Paul  had  in  mind  some 
special  theory  concerning  the  body.  It  could  be  changed  in  a 
moment  (verse  51),  it  could  take  on  a  new  nature  in  the  same 
manner  as  a  grain  of  wheat  ;  it  could  become  a  spiritual  body 
(verses  35-49).  Exactly  what  is  to  become  of  the  flesh  and  blood 
that  cannot  enter  the  kingdom  (verse  50)  he  does  not  make 
clear,  but  he  seems  to  think  that  it  is  to  be  transformed  into 
spirit  (verses  51-54).  He  is  chiefly  interested  in  man's  spirit, 
evidently  believing  it  to  be  the  fundamental  and  eternal  element 
of  man. 

'2  I  Cor.  xvi.  I,  2  and  10,   11.     See  p.    175. 

''^  I  Cor.  xvi.  12.  This  shows  that  Paul  did  not  blame  Apollos 
for  the  Apollos  party  in  Corinth.      See  p.  173. 

'*  I  Cor.  iv.   18-21  ;    i  Cor.  xvi.  5-9. 

'^  I  Cor.  xvi.  8. 

'^  I  Cor.  xvi.  13,  14,  19-24.  Perhaps  Stephanas  and  his 
friends  carried  this  letter  (i  Cor.)  back  to  the  Corinthians. 
See  p.    ly"^. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

LOVE    RESTORES    ORDER    IN    CORINTH    WITHOUT    LOSS    OF 

LIBERTY 

"  I  WILL  tarry  at  Ephesus  until  Pentecost,  for  a  great 
door  and  effectual  is  opened  unto  me,  and  there  are 
many  adversaries."  i 

Thus  Paul  had  written  to  the  Corinthians  hoping  that 
they  could  solve  their  difficulties  without  him  since  the 
"  adversaries  "  in  Ephesus  made  him  wish  to  stay  and 
see  that  nothing  closed  the  door  opened  to  the  Gospel 
there.  But  the  situation  in  Corinth  became  so  alarming 
that  Paul  seemed  to  have  thought  it  best  to  make  a 
brief  visit  there.  It  was  probably  a  report  which 
Timothy^  brought  on  his  return  from  Corinth  that 
made  Paul  leave  everything  and  hurry  to  Corinth. 
We  have  no  detailed  account  of  this  visit  of  Paul's, 
but  he  refers  to  it  thus  : 

"  I  determined  this  for  myself,  that  I  would  not 
come  again  to  you  with  sorrow."  ^ 

^  I  Cor.  xvi.  8,  9. 

^  At  least  Timothy  is  with  Paul  again  when  he  writes  later 
(2  Cor.  i.  i).  See  p.  175  and  183  for  the  going  of  Timothy  to 
Corinth. 

^  2  Cor.  ii.  I.  There  is  also  evidence  of  an  unrecorded  visit 
in  2  Cor.  xii.  14  and  2  Cor.  xiii.  i,  2,  where  Paul  says  that 
this  is  the  "  third  time."  Of  course,  with  .so  little  evidence, 
we  cannot  be  sure  just  when  the  second  visit  was  made,  but  it 
seems  most  natural  after  the  many  difficulties  of  which  he  speaks 
in  I  Cor.  For  the  view,  however,  that  this  second  visit  was 
made  before  i  Cor.,  see  Robertson  and  Plummer's  Com.  on 
I  Cor.,  pages  xxi.-xxiv. 

184 


LOVE  RESTORES  ORDER  IN  CORINTH       185 

It  had  been  necessary,  then,  for  Paul  to  go  to  Corinth 
"with  a  rod"  "^as  he  had  feared  it  might  be.  Nor  did 
his  rod  prove  successful,  for  he  also  wrote  a  sorrowful 
letter. 

"  Out  of  much  affliction  and  anguish  of  heart,"  he 
says,  "  I  wrote  unto  you  with  many  tears;  not  that  ye 
should  be  made  sorry,  but  that  ye  might  know  the  love 
which  I  have  more  abundantly  unto  you."  ^ 

So  severe  was  this  letter  that  Paul  almost  regretted 
having  written  it.  ^  Can  we  find  this  "  severe  letter  " 
and  from  it  learn  about  the  crisis  in  Corinth  ?  At  least, 
we  have  some  parts  of  a  letter  in  which  Paul  is  con- 
scious that  he  is  writing  in  a  way  that  might  "  terrify  "  ^ 
and  in  which  there  is  much  evidence  of  enemies  in 
Corinth.  ^  In  these  chapters  Paul  becomes  exceedingly 
sarcastic  when  deahng  with  the  accusations  of  his 
opponents.  They  said  he  was  courageous  only  when 
he  was  away  from  his  enemies,  ^  that  his  letters  were 
"  weighty  and  strong  "  but  his  "  bodily  presence  " 
"  v/eak  "  and  "his  speech  of  no  account."  ^^  Paul 
replies  that  he  scorns  to  compare  himself  "  with  certain 
of  them  that  commend  themselves  "  who  are  "  without 
understanding  "  in  their  comparisons,  and  that,  though 
rude  in  speech,  he  is  not  rude  in  knowledge. ^^  They  even 
dared  to  say  that  he  was  not  truly  Christ's  but  walked 
according  to  the  flesh.     But  Paul  writes  them  that  at 

^   I  Cor.  iv.  21  ;    xi.   34. 

^  2  Cor.  ii.  4. 

^  2  Cor.  vii.   8. 

'  2  Cor.  X.  9. 

^  If  we  have  this  severe  letter  at  all  it  is  in  2  Cor.  x.-xiii.  10  • 
It  cannot  have  been  i  Cor.,  for  although  Paul  does  deal  sternly 
with  the  case  of  fornication,  there  is  nothing  to  indicate  that  he 
is  in  great  grief  and  scarcely  anything  that  he  could  have  regretted 
writing.  Whereas  2  Cor.  x.-xiii.  stands  quite  separate  from 
chapters  i.-ix.,  and  answers  that  description  well.  SeeMofiatt's 
Intro,  to  N.T.  for  more  details. 
^  2  Cor.  X.   I. 

^^  2  Cor.  X.   10. 

^^  2  Cor.  X.    11-18:     2  Cor.  xi.  6. 


1 86  THE    I.IFF    A\D    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

least  he  does  not  "  war  according  to  the  flesh,"  but 
attempts  to  bring  "  every  thought  into  captivity  to  the 
obedience  of  Christ,"  and  tliat  those  who  say  he  is  not 
Christ's  only  look  at  the  things  immediately  before  their 
faces.  12 

It  is  quite  evident  that  all  this  comes  from  the  midst 
of  a  controversy  with  the  details  of  which  Paul  is  entirely 
familiar.  It  is  probable,  then,  that  it  is  all  a  reflection 
of  the  happenings  during  the  unrecorded  visit  to  Corinth, 
and  shows  that  he  had  failed  to  accomplish  the  object 
of  his  visit.  His  enemies  had  insulted  him,  and 
triumphed  over  him  for  the  moment.  Just  who  these 
enemies  were  it  is  not  easy  to  say.  They  claimed  to  be 
truer  followers  of  Christ  than  Paul  ;  ^^  they  preached  a 
"  different  gospel  "  from  Paul  and  claimed  to  be  the  true 
apostles,  even  using  Paul's  refusal  to  accept  pay  for  his 
preaching  as  proof  that  he  was  not  an  apostle  !  They 
said  he  did  not  work  the  "  signs  "  of  an  apostle  ;  they 
even  said  he  was  "  crafty,"  probably  implying  that  he 
intended  to  use  the  money  of  the  collection  dishonestly.^* 
Such  charges  must  have  been  deeply  painful  to  Paul. 
No  doubt  he  answered  them  while  in  Corinth,  but  it  is 
no  wonder  that  he  also  wanted  to  write  a  letter  to  further 
show  their  absurdity  and  help^  win  back  his  beloved 
Corinthians  whom  he  still  hoped  to  present  "  as  a  pure 
virgin  to  Christ."  He  uses  strong  language  about  those 
who  have  led  them  astray,  calling  thern  "  false  apostles  " 
and  ministers  of  Satan  who  are  meddling  in  a  province 
that  does  not  belong  to  them.  ^^  He  was  driven,  also, 
to  defend  his  own  apostleship.  He  felt  the  foolishness 
of  such  boasting,  but  told  the  Corinthians  that  they 
could  easily  bear  wdth  foolishness  since  they  were  so 
wise  !  Indeed,  the}^  seemed  in  the  case  of  his  opponent 
to  be  able  to  bear  with  a  man  however  much  he  exalted 

^2  2   Cor.  X.   2-7. 

^'  2  Cor.  X.  7.  This  might  possibly  be  a  reference  to  a 
Christ-party  in  Corinth.     See  ch.  XVI.,  p.  174. 

1*  2  Cor.  xii.  16-18  ;  2  Cor.  viii.  20,  21.  On  the  collection 
see  pp.  199  and  200. 

1^  2  Cor.  xi.   13-15  ;    2  Cor.  x.   14-16. 


LOVE  RESTORES  ORDER  IN  CORINTH       187 

himself  and  even  if  he  insulted  them.i^  But  what  is 
Paul's  chief  claim  to  apostleship  ?  His  sufferings  for 
the  Gospel  !  ^^  Probably  his  opponents  would  not  care 
to  equal  him  in  that  qualification,  though  it  un- 
doubtedly proved  devotion.  Paul  also  speaks  of  his 
visions  and  his  "  thorn  in  the  flesh,"  as  indications  of 
God's  power  manifest  in  his  weakness.i^ 

The  fragment  of  this  letter  which  we  still  possess 
closes  with  plans  about  coming  back  to  Corinth.  He 
would  go  and  "  gladly  spend  and  be  spent  "  for  their 
souls,  yet  he  fears  to  go  so  long  as  they  are  in  their 
present  state  of  mind  lest  there  should  be  strife. i^  If 
he  does  come,  however,  he  "  will  not  spare  "  and  his 
severity  is  to  be  proof,  he  says,  that 

"  Christ  speaketh  in  me." 

However,  he  wishes  to  make  no  claims  which  they 
should  not  make,  for  he  asks, 

"  Know  ye  not  as  to  your  own  selves,  that  Jesus 
Christ  is  in  you  ?  "  20 

Certainly  it  was  Paul's  love  for  the  Corinthians  that 
prompted  his  severity, 21  for  while  he  scornfully  reproved 
them,  he  prayed  for  them — prayed  that  they  might  be 
saved  even  if  he  himself  should  be  reprobate,  prayed  for 
their  '' perfecting."  22  Paul  was  not  a  meek  man.  He 
was  a  born  fighter.  When  he  met  Christ  and  took  him 
into  his  life,  he  did  not  lose  his  strong  virile  qualities. 
He  was  still  a  fighter,  but  no  longer  with  weapons  of 

^^  2  Cor.  xi.  16-20.  Verse  20  is  certainly  a  reference  to  the 
leader  of  the  trouble  in  Corinth,  whoever  he  was. 

^'  2  Cor.  xi.  21-33.  His  claim  to  be  as  good  a  Hebrew  as 
his  enemies,  shows  that  they  are  Jews,  yet  they  surely  are  not 
the  kind  of  Judaizers  that  troubled  the  Galatians,  for  Paul  says 
nothing  about  the  Law. 

^^  2  Cor.  xii.    i-io. 

^^  2  Cor.  xii.   15,   20-21. 

^'^  2  Cor.  xiii.   1-5. 

2^  2  Cor.  xi.   II  ;    xii.   15. 

^  2  Cor.  xiii.  6-10.  Verses  11-14  probably  followed  ix.  15. 
See  p.  199. 


1 88  THE    LIFK    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

the  flesh. '^^  Xeveithelcss  he  fought  witli  the  fierceness 
of  love.  Not  only  did  Paul  send  this  passionate  letter 
but  he  sent  Titus  with  it  to  be  a  living  epistle. ^^ 

It  is  difficult  to  keep  in  mind  that  all  these  strenuous 
dealings  with  the  Corhithians  were  carried  on  by  Paul 
during  the  three  years'-^  of  his  active  and  dangerous 
work  in  Ephesus.  Paul  describes  his  last  days  in 
Ephesus  thus  : 

"  We  would  not  have  3'ou  ignorant,  brethren,  con- 
cerning our  affliction  which  befell  us  in  Asia,  that  we 
were  weighed  down  exceedingly,  beyond  our  power, 
insomuch  that  we  despaired  even  of  life :  yea,  we 
ourselves  have  had  the  answer  of  death  within  ourselves, 
that  we  should  not  trust  in  ourselves,  but  in  God  which 
raiseth  the  dead  :  who  delivered  us  out  of  so  great  a 
death,  and  will  deliver."  ^e 

Here  Paul  seems  to  have  stood  face  to  face  with  death. 
Perhaps  it  was  on  the  occasion  of  the  riot  which  Luke 
describes  as  the  last  event  during  Paul's  stay  in  Ephesus. 
He  had  opposed  magical  practices  and  this  aroused  great 
opposition.  As  a  result  of  his  condemnation  of  Sceva 
and  his  seven  sons  who  tried  to  use  the  name  of  Jesus 
as  a  magic  word,  a  great  pile  of  magical  books  were 
burned  27  and  this  probably  made  Paul  some  enemies. 
But  the  greatest  difficulty  arose  from  his  opposition 
to  the  sale  of  the  little  images  of  the  temple  of  Diana.^s 
It  seems  to  have  been  easy  for  Demetrius  to  call 
together  the  craftsmen  who  worked  af   image- making. 

23  2  Cor.  X.  4. 

^  Titus  was  the  young  man  that' Paul  had  taken  to  the 
Jerusalem  council  as  a  sample  Gentile  Christian.  See  ch.  ix., 
p.  89.  2  Cor.  xii.  17,  18,  sounds  as  though  Titus  had  been  in 
Corinth  before  the  trouble  arose.  2  Cor.  vii.  6,  7,  is  the  chief 
evidence  that  Paul  sent  Titus  again  with  the  hope  that  he  would 
help  to  settle  matters  in  Corinth. 

25  Acts  xix.   10  ;    XX.   31. 

26  2  Cor.  i.   8-10. 
2'  Acts  xix.    13-20. 

28  Acts  xix.  23-41.  Concerning  the  temple  of  Diana  see 
ch.  xvi.,  p.  168,  170. 


LOVE  RESTORES  ORDER  IN  CORINTH      189 

Perhaps  they  had  some  kind  of  a  trade  guild.  They 
responded  quickly  to  the  complaints  of  Demetrius, 
whom  Luke  reports  as  putting  the  matter  before  them 
in  the  frank,  business-like  way  that  would  appeal  to 
them. 

"  Sirs,  ye  know  that  by  this  business  we  have  our 
wealth.  And  ye  see  and  hear  that  .  .  .  this  Paul 
has  persuaded  and  turned  away  much  people  . 
and  not  only  is  there  danger  that  this  our  trade  come  into 
disrepute  but  also  that  the  temple  of  the  great  Goddess 
Diana  be  made  of  no  account." 

The  whole  city,  too,  seems  to  have  been  ready  to 
respond  to  the  danger  call,  and  seizing  two  of  Paul's 
companions'^  they  rushed  into  the  theatre. ^o  Paul 
tried  to  go  in  and  speak  to  the  mob,  but  his  friends  and 
some  of  the  public  ofificials^i  would  not  permit  him  to  do 
so.  They  were  probably  justified  in  this  because  the 
mob  would  not  even  listen  to  a  Jew,  Alexander,^2  i^^t 
shouted  for  two  hours, 

"  Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians." 

Confusion  reigned  in  this  great  theatre,  which  must 
have  been  capable  of  holding  practically  the  whole  city. 
Finally,  the  town  clerk  became  the  Gamaliel  of  the 
situation,  pointing  out  that  since  no  one  could  gainsay 

23  These  two  friends,  Gaius  and  Aristarchus,  had  apparently 
travelled  from  Macedonia  to  help  Paul.  Probably  this  is 
Aristarchus  of  Thessalonica.  See  Acts  xxvii.  2  ;  Col.  iv.  10  ; 
Philemon  24. 

3*^  The  situation  of  the  theatre  in  the  centre  of  the  city  (see 
p.  168)  made  it  an  easy  place  to  hold  impromptu  meetings. 
The  whole  contour  of  the  theatre  is  still  visible  on  the  hillside, 
though  not  many  of  the  seats  are  left.  The  stage,  however, 
is  remarkably  well  preserved.  There  is  a  fine  view  over  the  site 
of  the  city  and  out  across  the  plain  of  the  Cayster  from  the  hill 
where  the  higher  seats  of  the  theatre  were.  Most  of  the  things 
found  here  are  in  the  Vienna  Museum,  but  a  few  may  be  seen  in 
the  Ephesus  room  of  the  British  Museum.     See  Nos.  1238-1255 

^^  These  officials  were  called  Asiarchs.  They  were  officials* 
who  had  special  care  of  the  public  games  and  festivals.  The 
feast  in  honour  of  Diana  was  held  in  May. 

32  Perhaps  this  was  Alexander,  the  coppersmith  who  did 
much  harm  to  Paul  (2  Tim.  iv.  14). 


IQO  THE    LIFE   AND   MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

the  power  and  i)laci'  of  the  heaven-sent  image  of  Diana 
there  was  certainly  no  reason  for  a  riot,  indeed,  that 
it  was  chin,G:eroiis  to  the  })riviKges  of  the  city,  since  it 
Would  be  iiiii)()ssible  to  ^Wc  any  sensible  reason  for  it. 
He  told  Demetrius  and  his  fellow  craftsmen  that  they 
should  bring  any  grievance  they  had  before  the  pro- 
consul.    To  this  calm  reasoning  the  mob  yielded. 

Luke  says  that  Paul  went  into  Macedonia  imme- 
diately after  this  riot^=^  and  Paul  is  certainly  in  Mace- 
donia when  he  writes  about  having  despaired  of  his  life 
in  Asia. 3-^  It  is,  therefore,  probable  that  Paul  came 
much  nearer  death  in  Ephesus  than  Luke's  account 
of  the  riot  indicates  and  that  it  was  necessary  for  Paul  to 
give  up  his  work  in  Ephesus  to  save  his  life.^^ 

But,  though  he  was  forced  to  leave,  there  were 
groups  of  Christians  who  would  carry  on  his  work. 
One  group  was  the  church  that  was  in  the  house  of 
Priscilla  and  Aquila.^^  Their  home  had  become  a 
centre  for  worship,  and  perhaps  also  the  School  of 
Tyrannus.  That  Priscilla  was  as  much  a  helper  in 
the  affairs  of  their  house-church  as  her  husband 
is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  both  Paul  and  Luke  most 
often  speak  of  Priscilla  and  Aquila  instead  of  following 
the  customary  style  of  speaking  of  the  husband  first. 
"  Prisca,"  as  Paul  calls  her,  no  doubt,  made  people 
feel  thoroughly  at  home  when  they  came  to  her  house 
to  join  in  worship,  and  they  remembered  her  as  an 
important  member  of  the  worship-group. 

Paul  names  several  other  persons,  too,  who  had 
"  brethren  "  or  "  saints  "  "  with  them."  This  probabh' 
refers  to  other  house-churches  and  indicates  that  these 
small  groups  were  important  factors  in  the  rapid  spread 

33  Acts  XX.   I. 

3*  Cf.  2  Cor.  ii.  13  and  i.  8-11.    Seep.  188. 

35  Of  course  it  is  uncertain  v.hether  Paul  is  referring  to  the 
riot  incident  or  not.  The  evidence  is  simply  that  both  seem  to 
come  at  the  end  of  his  stay  in  Ephesus. 

3^  I  Cor.  xvi.  19.  I  Cor.  was  written  from  Ephesus,  Rom. 
xvi.  5.  This  chapter  was  probably  written  to  Ephesus.     See  p.  169. 


LOVE  RESTORES  ORDER  IN  CORINTH      IQI 

of  Christianity  in  cities  like  Corinth  and  Ephesus  which 
were  already  so  full  of  philosophies  and  religions  that 
it  is  difficult  to  understand  how  the  Gospel  got  a  per- 
manent foothold. 27  It  must  have  been  because  in  these 
house-churches  it  actually  took  hold  of  the  deepest 
elements  of  life  and  gave  them  true  development. 
In  these  little  groups  Love  would  not  be  merely  a  high- 
sounding  word  that  Paul  preached  and  wrote  about, 
but  an  actual  power  realized  in  a  thousand  ways.  We 
see  some  lights  reflected  from  this  Ephesian  fellowship 
in  the  greetings  which  Paul  later  sends  to  them.  There 
was  "  Epsenetus  my  beloved  "^^  who  was  the  first 
Christian  in  Asia,  there  was  Mary^^  who  "  bestowed 
much  labour"  on  the  members  of  the  fellowship,  there 
were  Andronicus  and  Junias  who  were  "apostles,"  who 
had  been  Christians  before  Paul  and  had  come  from 
somewhere  else  to  help  him  in  Ephesus,  there  was 
Ampliatus  whom  Paul  calls  "  my  beloved  in  the  Lord" 
and  Urbanus  to  whom  he  refers  as  "  our  fellow-worker  in 
Christ  "  and  "  Stachys  my  beloved  "  and  "  Apelles  the 
approved  in  Christ ; "  there  were  also  those  of  the  house- 
holds of  Aristobulus  and  Narcissus  who  were  perhaps 
groups  of  slaves  who  also  had  a  house-church,  and  there 
was  Rufus  whose  mother  had  also  been  a  mother  to 
Paul.  These  and  the  other  references  in  this  note  to 
members  of  the  brotherhood  show  how  permeated  with 
love  and  service  and  worship  were  these  groups.  One 
can  begin  to  understand  from  such  glimpses  into  their 
life  how  Paul  could  write  his  great  Hymn  to  Love  in 
which  he  realizes  that — 


3'  Other  house-churches  are  mentioned  in  Col.  iv.  15  and 
Philemon  2. 

^^  Rom.  xvi.  5-16.  Since  it  was  in  Ephesus  that  Paul  did  his 
first  preaching  in  the  Roman  province  of  Asia,  it  is  probable  that 
Epaenetus  was  an  Ephesian.  On  destination  of  Rom.  xvi.  see 
ch.  XVI.,  p.  169. 

^^  How  was.  Mary's  labour  bestowed,  one  wonders.  At  least, 
the  description  shows  that  labour  for  one  another  was  one  of 
the  elements  of  these  groups.     See  also  verse  12. 


192  THE   LIFE   AND   MINISTRY   OF   PAUL 

"  Love  suffereth  long, 

Kind  is  love, 

Not   envious  is  love. 

It   boasteth   not, 
Is  not  puffed  up. 
Is  not  unseemly. 

It  seeketh  not  its  own, 
Is  not  provoked, 
Taketh  no  account  of  evil. 

It  rejoiceth  not  in  unrighteousness, 
But  rejoiceth  with  the  truth. 

It   covereth   all   things, 
Believeth  all  things, 
Hopeth  all  things, 
Endureth  all  things. *o 

Such  practical  realization  of  the  restraint  and  kind 
consideration  of  Love  could  come  only  out  of  community 
life.  Paul  wrote  this  great  hymn  to  the  Corinthians 
who  were  at  the  moment  violating  its  principles,  but  he 
wrote  it  in  Ephesus  where  they  were  being  realized. 
When,  during  these  last  days  in  Ephesus,  he  is  compelled 
to  write  this  epistle,  which  made  the  Corinthians  sorry^i 
and  which  must  have  been  sorrowful  to  him,  he  was 
supported  by  the  love  and  fellowship  hianifested  in  the 
Christian  communities  around  him.  Forced  to  quit 
Ephesus  he  leaves  behind  these  living  Christian  fellow- 
ships which  he  expects  to  be  able  to  flourish  without 
him  since  they  embody  the  true  Spirit  which  is  Love. 
Probably  there  were  churches  in  other  places  in  Asia*^ 

*"  I  Cor.  xiii.  4-7.  See  p.  182  for  the  beginning  of  this 
translation  of  the  chapter,  which  comes  from  Prof.  Deissman's 
"  St.  Paul,"  and  p.  246  for  the  rest. 

41  2  Cor.  vii.  8  ;    see  p.   185-188. 

*2  I  Cor.  xvi.  19  ;  Acts  xix.  10,  26  and  xx.  18,  20.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  Paul  himself  travelled  about  much  outside 
of  Ephesus  since  he  never  visited  either  Colossae  or  Laodicea. 
(Col.  ii.  I.) 


LOVE    RESTORES    ORDER    IN    CORINTH  I93 

too,  as  a  result  of  the  Ephesian  work,  since  Paul  speaks 
of  the  "  Churches  of  Asia." 

Paul,  probably  left  or  sent  Timothy  to  help  with 
the  work  in  Ephesus  when  he  himself  travelled  north,*^ 
perhaps  by  sea,  sailing  from  ]\Iiletus  to  Troas.  Appar- 
ently he  came  to  Troas  with  the  idea  of  beginning 
work  there  for  he  says  he  came  "  for  the  gospel  of  Christ " 
and  that  a  "  door  was  opened  "  unto  him.  But  he  was 
so  troubled  because  he  did  not  find  Titus  there  from 
whom  he  longed  to  learn  the  results  of  the  severe  letter 
to  the  Corinthians,  that  he  went  on  almost  immediately 
to  Macedonia. 4*  Arrived  in  Macedonia,  his  anxiety 
found  no  relief,  but  he  was  "  afflicted  on  every  side."45 
Driven  out  of  Ephesus  and  able  to  hear  no  good  news 
from  Corinth,  everything  seemed  dark.  Possibly  it  was 
in  this  time  of  distress  that  Paul  sent  a  note  to  Timothy 
saying, 

"  Do  thy  diligence  to  come  shortly  unto  me. 
I  have  sent  Tychicus  to  Ephesus.  The  cloak  that  I 
left  at  Troas  with  Carpus,  bring  when  thou  comest,  and 
the  books,  especially  the  parchments.  Alexander  the 
coppersmith  did  me  much  evil  ;  the  Lord  will  render  to 
him  according  to  his  works  ;  of  whom  be  thou  ware 
also.  .  .  Salute  Prisca  and  Aquila  and  the  house 
of  Onesiphorus.  Erastus  abode  at  Corinth  but 
Trophimus  I  left  at  Miletus  sick."*^ 

If  Paul  had  been  compelled  to  leave  his  travelling 
companion  behind  at  Miletus  when  he  started  to  Troas 

^^  This  conclusion  can  be  drawn  from  i  Tim.  i.  3,  irrespective 
of  the  problem  as  to  whether  Paul  wrote  i  Timothy,  for  it  means 
that  at  least  there  was  an  early  tradition  that  Timothy  was  left 
in  Ephesus  by  Paul. 

**  2  Cor.  ii.  12,  13  ;  Acts  xx.  i.  It  was  at  Troas  that  Paul 
had  been  when  the  man  of  Macedonia  had  beckoned  to  him. 

^^  2  Cor.  vii.   5. 

^^  2  Tim.  iv.  9,  12-15,  19,  20.  It  is  uncertain  whether  these 
notes  from  2  Tim.  should  be  put  in  here,  but  they  cannot  be 
fitted  into  any  part  of  Paul's  life  of  which  we  know,  except  here. 
But,  of  course,  they  may  refer  to  a  part  of  which  we  do  not 
know.     See  p.  240  for  further  discussion. 


194  THR    I.IFIi:    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

it  gives  an  additional  reason  for  his  not  continuing  work 
there  ;  if  he  liad  hopcxl  that  Erastus  from  Corinth  would 
join  him  and  neither  he  nor  Titus  had  come,  it  explains 
why  Paul  was  so  discouraged  in  Macedonia.  Finally 
he  was  "  comforted  "  by  "  the  coming  of  Titiis."'*^  ^nd 
Timothy  must  have  come  soon,  for  he  joined  with  Paul 
in  greetings  to  the  Corinthians  in  the  letter  which  he 
wrote  just  after  the  coming  of  Titus. '^^ 

Titus  brought  good  news  from  Corinth.  Love  at 
last  had  brought  harmony.  Titus  probably  brought 
a  letter  in  which  the  Corinthians  told  Paul  that  he  was 
their"  glorying. "^^  At  any  rate  he  told  of  the  "  longing" 
and  "  mourning  "  and  "  zeal  "  which  the  Corinthians 
had  for  Paul  because  of  their  recent  disloyalty  to  him. 
Titus  told,  also,  how  he  had  been  received  with  "  fear 
and  trembling  "  and  his  spirit  been  refreshed^^  by  the 
Corinthians.  Paul  no  longer  regretted  having  written 
the  letter  that  made  them  "  sorry,"  for  now  he  had 
proof  that  it  had  done  what  he  had  hoped — made  them 
"  sorry  unto  repentance."  Not  only  he  that  "  did  the 
wrong  "  and  he  that  "  suffered  the  wrong  "  but  the 
whole  brotherhood  were  brought  to  a  "  godly  sorrow. "^i 
There  had  been  a  meeting  of  the  brotherhood  in  which 
the  majority  of  those  present  decided  to  inflict  a  certain 
punishment  upon  the  offender  though  some  thought  it 
should  have  been  even  more  severe.  Titus'  report  was, 
then,  of  the  victory  of  Love  in  Corinth.  Paul  had  not 
poured  out  to  them  his  great  Hymn  in  vain,  he  had  not 
loved  them  in  vain,  though  it  looked  for  a  time  as 
though  they  had  utterly  failed  to  reach  his  ideals. 
Now  Paul's  heart  overflows  with  joy  and  thank- 
fulness   which    he   expresses   in   another  letter  to  the 

"  2  Cor.  vii.  6. 

''s  2  Cor.  i.   I. 

'J*  2  Cor.  i.   14. 

^"  2  Cor.  vii.   5,  13-16. 

51  I  Cor.  vii.  8-12.     We  have  no  means  of  knowing  who  this 
wrong-doer  was  or  what  he  had  done.     See  pp.  186,  18/. 


LOVE  RESTORES  ORDER  IN  CORINTH       1 95 

Corinthians. ^2  Timothy  is  with  Paul  by  this  time  to 
share  the  joy  and  they  greet  the  "  saints  "  at  Corinth 
with  thankfulness  that  God  had  brought  comfort  in 
their  affliction. ^^ 

"  Thanks  be  unto  God  which  always  leadeth  us  in 
triumph  in  Christ,"  cries  Paul  in  his  joy  over  the  report 
of  Titus.^*  His  "  sincerity  "  is,  at  last,  recognised  by 
his  Corinthian  friends,  and  he  has  once  more  become 
to  them  "a  savour  from  life  unto  life."  He  does  not 
wish  them  to  think  that  he  is  writing  "  again  to 
commend  "^^  himself  to  them.  It  is  no  longer  necessary, 
for  he  writes, 

' '  Ye  are  our  epistle,  written  in  our  hearts,  known  and 
read  of  all  men ;  being  made  manifest  that  ye  are  an 
epistle  of  Christ,  ministered  by  us,  written  not  with 
ink,  but  with  the  Spirit  of  the  living  God ;  not  in  tables 
of  stone,  but  in  tables  that  are  hearts  of  flesh. "^^ 

These  transformed  Corinthians,  then,  Paul  still  feels 
are  sufficient  proof  of  the  value  of  his  Gospel.  One 
might  have  supposed  that  their  recent  conduct  would 
have  shaken  his  faith  in  the  Gospel  of  the  Spirit  as 
sufficient  for  such  carnal  people,  but  it  has  not  for  he 

^2  This  last  extant  letter  of  Paul  to  the  Corinthians  is  certainly 
ojr  2  Cor.  It  is  from  it  that  we  learn  all  we  know  about  the 
mission  of  Titus  to  Corinth  and  his  success  there.  But  the  only 
part  of  the  letter  that  is  full  of  the  thankfulness  which  this 
success  would  make  natural  is  2  Cor.  i.  i-vi.  13  and  vii.  2-ix.  15 
and  xiii.  11-14.  Of  the  rest,  vi.  14-vii.  i  is  such  an  abrupt 
interruption  of  the  thought  that  it  is  probably  an  earlier  letter 
(see  pp.  168  and  171),  and  x.  i-xiii.  10  is.  as  we  have  seen 
(pp.  185-188),  so  severe  and  critical  in  tone  that  it  may  well  be 
the  letter  that  made  the  Corinthians  "  sorry."  It,  therefore, 
seems  best  to  conclude  that  these  three  entirely  different  parts 
of  2  Cor.  are  different  letters  or  parts  of  letters  which  long 
afterwards  were  put  together.  See  pp.  198,  199,  for  summary 
of  Paul's  Corinthian  correspondence. 

^3  2  Cor.  i.   1-7. 

^*  2  Cor.  ii.   13-17. 

^^  2  Cor.  iii.  i.  He  had  seemed  to  be  commending  himself 
in  the  severe  letter.     See  2  Cor.  xii.  11  and  v.  12 

^^  2  Cor.  iii.  2. 


ig^)  TIIK    I.IKK    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

Still  has  "  such  confidence  "  "  through  Christ  to  God- 
ward  "  that  he  still  affirms  that  he  is  the  minister  of  "  a 
new  covenant  ;  not  of  the  letter  but  of  the  s})irit,"  and 
he  still  believes  that  "  the  spirit  giveth  life  "  whereas 
"  the  letter  killeth.""'"  One  mi^ht  have  su])posed  that 
Paul  would  be  ready  to  admit  now  that  absolute  liberty 
could  not  be  given  to  such  people  as  the  Corinthians. 
One  might  have  expected  him  to  suggest  some  rules 
for  life  and  worship,  but  instead  he  still  affirms  that, 
"  Where  the  Spirit  of  the  Lord  is,  there  is  liberty."^^ 

Liberty  to  walk  according  to  the  leading  of  the 
Spirit  is  the  heart  of  Paul's  Gospel  and  he  does  not 
abandon  it  because  some  do  not  accept  it  and  others 
fail  to  live  up  to  it.  Instead,  he  explains  that  if  his 
"  gospel  is  veiled  it  is  veiled  in  them  that  are  perish- 
ing." The  "  veil  "  which  "  lieth  upon  their  heart  " 
shuts  out  the  "  light  of  the  knowledge  of  the  glory  of 
God  in  the  face  of  Jesus  Christ."  But  to  the  Corinthians 
who  have  now  removed  the  darkening  veil  of  contention 
he  writes, 

"  We  all,  with  unveiled  face  reflecting  as  a  mirror  the 
glor}^  of  the  Lord,  are  transformed  into  the  same  image 
from  glory  to  glory,  even  as  from  the  Lord  the  Spirit. "^^ 

Paul  sees  that  even  those  who  have  removed  all 
barriers  from  between  themselves  and  the  light  are  being 
only  gradually  transformed  and  this  helps  him  to  be 
charitable  to  those  who  fail  to  see  or  live  up  to  ideals. 
Earlier  in  his  letter  he  had  been  generous  enough  to 
advise  forgiveness  and  love  toward  the  one  who  had 
been  the  chief  cause  of  the  trouble  in  Corinth  lest  he 
"  be  swallowed  up  with  his  overmuch  sorrow. "^^  He 
recognizes  also  that  even  the  best  have  this  treasure 
of  the  Gospel  in  corruptible  earthen  vessels.  Yet  it  is 
this  inner  treasure  that  gives  one's  life  a  share  in  the 

"  2  Cor.  iii.  4-1 1. 

^^  2  Cor.  iii.   17. 

^^  2  Cor.  iii.   12-iv.  6. 

6"  2  Cor.  ii.  6-8. 


LOVE  RESTORES  ORDER  IN  CORINTH       I97 

greatness  of  God  ;  it  is  this  power  of  God  within  that 
makes  it  possible  to  endure,  whatever  may  happen  to 
the  outer  vessel.  Because  of  this  inner  power  one  may 
be, 

**  Perplexed  yet  not  unto  despair  ;  pursued  yet  not 
forsaken  ;    smitten  down  yet  not  destroyed." 

Indeed,  those  who  are  followers  of  Jesus  are, 

"  Always  bearing  about  in  the  body  the  dying  .of 
Jesus,  that  the  life  also  of  Jesus  may  be  manifested 
in  our  body."^^ 

Here  we  see  again  the  secret  of  the  indomitable  spirit 
of  Paul.  He  could  be  brought  face  to  face  with  death 
in  Ephesus,  he  could  hear  of  the  disloyalty  of  his 
disciples  in  Corinth  and  still  "  faint  not  "  for  his  "  in- 
ward man  "  was  "  renewed  day  by  day."  With  what- 
ever afflictions  he  found  himself  surrounded  he  had 
learned  to, 

"  Look  not  at  the  things  which  are  seen,  but  at  the 
things  which  are  not  seen,"  for  he  knew  that  "  the 
things  which  are  seen  are  temporal,  but  the  things  which 
are  not  seen  are  eternal. "^^ 

He  could  be  "  always  of  good  courage "  because 
he  felt  sure  that, 

"  H  the  earthly  house  of  our  tabernacle  be  dissolved, 
we  have  a  building  from  God,  a  house  not  made  with 
hands,  eternal  in  the  heavens."^^ 

He  sometimes  longed  to  be  rid  of  the  burden  of  the 
body  that  he  might  be  immediately  in  the  presence 
of  Christ, 64  but  he  did  not  allow  this  desire  to  sap  his 

®i  2  Cor.  iv.  7-15. 

^2  2  Cor.  iv.    16-18. 

^^  2  Cor.  V.   I,  6. 

^*  2  Cor.  V.  2-10.  This  hope  that  he  would  be  in  the  presence 
of  Christ  immediately  after  death,  indicates  that  he  is  not 
expecting  the  Kingdom  to  appear  so  soon  as  he  believed  when 
he  wrote  Thessalonians,  and  that  he  does  not  now  think  that 
the  dead  will  sleep  until  the  Lord  comes.  But  8-10  indicates 
that  he  has  not  entirely  given  up  the  idea  of  a  future  judgment 
day. 


198  THE    LIFE    AND   MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

working  powers.  Constrained  by  the  love  of  Christ 
he  continued  to  "persuade  men  "to  be  reconciled  to 
God,  and  thus  to  become  new  creatures  "  in  Christ. "^^ 
Conscious  that  he  is  working  together  with  God  he 
entreats  men  to  accept  salvation  now^^  though  it  may 
bring  them  affliction  as  it  has  him.  His  ministry  to 
the  Corinthians  since  he  left  them  certainly  suggested 
some  of  the  items  in  his  catalogue  of  trials,  for  it  had 
been, 

"  In  much  patience,  in  affliction,  in  necessities,  in 
distresses,  in  pureness,  in  knowledge,  in  long  suffering, 
in  kindness,  in  the  Holy  Spirit,  in  love  unfeigned,  in  the 
word  of  truth,  in  the  power  of  God."^'^ 

Since  he  was  compelled  to  minister  to  their  difficulties 
chiefly  by  letter  we  have  been  able  to  know  something 
of  how  Paul  waited  with  patience  and  confidence  for 
the  triumph  of  the  Christ-life  within  them. 

A  brief  summary  of  his  relations  to  the  Corinthians 
since  leaving  them  is  as  follows  :^^ 

1.  The  "  previous  letter  "  of  Paul  to  the  Corinthians  : 

2  Cor.  vi.  i4.-vii.  i. 

2.  Report  brought  to  Paul  b}-  the  household  of  Chloe  : 

I  Cor.  i.  II. 

3.  Timothy  sent  to  Corinth  :   i  Cor.  iv.  17. 

4.  Visit    of    Stephanas,    Fortunatus,    and    Achaicus, 

probably  bringing  a  letter  from  .the  Corinthians 
to  Paul  :   I  Cor.  xvi.  17. 

5.  Letter  from  Paul  to  Corinthians,  probably  sent  by 

Stephanas  :    i  Cor. 

6.  Return  of  Timothy  with  unfavourable  report. 

^^  2  Cor.  V.  11-21.  See  chapter  XVIII.,  p.  207^,  for  more 
definite  consideration  of  what  is  said  in  these  verses  about  the 
death  of  Jesus  and  the  new  life  through  him. 

^®  2  Cor.  vi.   I,  2. 

®'  2  Cor.  vi.   3-7. 

^^  As  has  been  pointed  out  in  the  chapter  many  of  these  points 
are  uncertain,  because  our  evidence  is  insufficient,  but  this 
states  the  tentative  conclusions  reached  here 


LOVE  RESTORES  ORDER  IN  CORINTH      I99 

7.  Sorrowful  visit  of  Paul  to  Corinth  :   2  Cor.  ii.  i-ii. 

8.  A  "  severe  letter  "   sent  to  Corinth  probably  by 

Titus,  2  Cor.  X.  i-xiii.  lo. 

9.  Return  of  Titus  with  good  report  to  Paul  in  Mace- 

donia after  he  was  driven  from  Ephesus  :   2  Cor. 
vii.  5-13- 

10.  A  joyful  letter  sent  by  Titus  to  Corinth  :    2  Cor, 

i.  i-vi.  13,  and  vii.  2-ix.  15  and  xiii.  11-14. 

In  this  last  letter  to  the  Corinthians  Paul  must  have 
been  keenly  conscious  of  the  difficulties  he  had  recently 
experienced  with  them  when  they  had  believed  evil 
reports  of  various  sorts  about  him,^^  3^et  he  bears  them 
no  malice  and  only  rejoices  that  in  spite  of  tribulations 
he  is  "  rich,"  "  possessing  all  things. ""<^  Without 
reserve  he  gives  his  love  and  asks  theirs  in  return  : 
"  Our  mouth  is  open  unto  you,  O  Corinthians,  our  heart 
is  enlarged.  .  .  Open  3'our  hearts  to  us.  .  .  Ye 
are  in  our  hearts  to  die  together  and  live  together.  .  * 
I  am  filled  with  comfort,  I  overflow  with  joy  in  all  our 
affliction. "71 

One  request  he  makes — that  they  shall  interest  them- 
selves in  the  collection  which  Titus  is  making^^  and 
then  after  a  final  admonition  to  "  Be  perfected  "  closes 
his  letter  with  that  benediction  unequalled  for  beauty 
and  meaning  : 

"The  Grace  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and 
The  Love  of  God,  and 
The  Communion  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
Be  with  you  all. "73 


6»  2  Cor.  vi.   8,  9. 
'"  2  Cor.  vi.  9,    10. 
"1  2  Cor.  vi.   11-13  ;    vii.   3-4. 

'2  2  Cor.  viii.  and  ix.  will    be   treated  more  in  detail  in  the 
next  chapter. 

"3  2  Cor.  xiii.   11-14. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

PAUL  RISKS  HIS  LIFE  FOR  HIS  BRETHREN  IN  JERUSALEM. 

Despite  his  joy  over  the  victory  of  love  and  harmony 
in  Corinth,  Paul  does  not  go  there  at  once.  The  fact  is 
that  Paul  has  a  great  enterprise  in  mind.  He  is  keenly 
conscious  that  in  preaching  the  Gospel  without  the  Law 
to  the  Gentiles  he  has  been  understood  by  many  to 
despise  his  own  people  and  to  divide  Christians  into 
Jewish  and  Gentile  factions.  Now  he  is  about  to 
complete  a  plan  for  presenting  a  gift  from  the  Gentile 
Christians  to  those  of  Jerusalem  as  proof  of  essential 
unity  and  love. 

Some  time  before  this  Paul  had  written  asking  the 
Corinthians  to  begin  laying  up  this  "  collection  for  the 
saints  "  so  that  it  might  be  ready  either  to  send  or  take 
to  Jerusalem  when  he  came  to  Corinth.^  He  had 
expected  to  go  to  Corinth  in  a  few  months,  after  "  Pente- 
cost,"^  but  now  a  year  has  passed^  and  he  has  not  been 
able  to  carry  out  his  plans  because  of  the  trouble  both  in 
Corinth  and  Ephesus.  Titus  has  brought  word  that 
some  in  Corinth  accuse  him  of  "  fickleness  "  because  he 
has  not  carried  out  his  plans  and  Paul  has  replied  that 
the  yea  and  nay  concerning  his  plans  always  belong  to 
God.4 

1  I  Cor.  xvi.  1-4.  Ch.  XVI.,  p.  183.  He  also  mentions 
having  sei\t  the  same  word  to  Galatia,  though  we  do  not  know 
how  or  when.  No  doubt  Paul  had  much  correspondence  with 
his  churches  of  which  we  do  not  know. 

2  I  Cor.  xvi.  5-9.     Cf.  ch.  XVI.,  p.  184. 

3  2  Cor.  viii.   10. 
*  2  Cor.   i.    i^-20. 


PAUL    RISKS    HIS    LIFE    FOR    HIS    BRETHREN         201 

Nevertheless,  Paul  does  not  now  hurry  to  Corinth  but 
instead  sends  Titus  off  with  his  letter  and  directions  for 
finishing  the  collection.  Titus  had  begun  this  collection 
in  Corinth  a  year  ago  and  Paul  felt  that  it  was  better  for 
him  to  finish  it  and  Titus  was  glad  to  undertake  the 
work.  Paul  also  sent  with  him  "  the  brother  whose 
praise  in  the  Gospel  is  spread  through  all  the  churches  " 
and  also  another  "  brother  "  whom  Paul  had  man}/  times 
"  proved  earnest. "^  Perhaps  Paul  felt  some  delicacy 
about  going  to  Corinth  to  finish  the  collection  since  his 
enemies  had  dared  to  criticize  him  about  it.^  He 
preferred  to  wait  till  every  possible  cause  for  misunder- 
standing was  removed.  Besides,  he  himself  was  making 
the  collection  among  the  Macedonians.  He  was  boasting 
to  them  that  Achaia  {i.e.  Corinth)  had  been  prepared 
"  for  a  year  past."  He  generously  forgets  all  the  period 
when  Corinth  was  disloyal  to  him  and  uses  their  zeal 
to  stir  up  Macedonia,  at  the  same  time  telling  the 
Corinthians  in  the  letter  he  is  sending  off  by  Titus  to 
be  sure  to  finish  their  collection  at  once  so  that  if  any 
Macedonians  should  come  along  with  him  to  Corinth 
they  could  see  that  his  boasts  were  true  '.^  He  urged 
the  Corinthians  to  join  heartily  with  the  brethren  he 
was  sending  "  before-hand,"  because  **  God  loveth  a 
ckeerful  giver  "  and  because  the  collection  would  not 
onty  supply  the  needs  of  the  "  saints  "  in  Jerusalem 
but  would  increase  their  love  to  Gentiles  when  they 
saw  "  the  exceeding  grace  of  God  "  in  them.^ 

It  shows  how  skilful  and  generous  Paul  had  been  in 
preaching  his  gospel  of  freedom  from  the  Jewish  Law 
that  these  Gentile  churches  responded   to   his  plan  of 

^  2  Cor.  viii.  6-24  and  xii.  18.  We  do  not  have  an  account 
of  that  visit  of  Titus  to  Corinth  when  he  began  making  the 
collection,  but  these  verses  show  that  he  must  have  been  in 
Corinth  about  the  time  of  the  writing  of  i  Corinthians,  for  then 
Paul  asked  them  to  begin  the  collection,  i  Cor.  xvi.  1-4.  See 
ch.  XVI.,  p.  183. 

«  See  ch.  XVII.,  p.  186. 

'  2  Cor.  ix.    1-4. 

^  2  Cor.  ix.   5-14. 


202  TIIK    LIFK    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

showing  fellowship  to  Jerusalem  Christians  who  did 
keep  the  Law.  Even  Galatia,  to  whom  he  had  been 
compelled  to  use  strong  words  against  Peter  and  those 
whom  James  sent  out  from  Jerusalem,  had  not  been 
embittered  against  Jerusalem  and  now  they  collect 
money  for  the  gift.-'  The  Macedonians,  Paul  bears 
witness,  gave  "beyond  their  power"  because  of  their 
great  desire  to  enter  heartily  into  "  the  fellowship 
in  the  ministering  to  the  saints."^" 

Finall3%  Paul  followed  Titus  and  the  brethren  to 
Corinth  and,  no  doubt,  he  found  that  he  who  had  "  caused 
sorrow  "ii  and  those  who  had  allowed  themselves  to 
be  estranged  from  Paul  now  opened  their  hearts  to  him 
as  eagerly  as  he  had  asked. ^^  p^ul  seems  to  have  made 
his  home  in  Corinth  at  the  house  of  Gains  for  he  speaks 
of  "  Gaius,  my  host  "  in  a  letter  written  at  the  time.i^ 
Perhaps  the  church  or  one  of  the  house-churches  met  in  the 
house  of  Gaius  since  Paul  mentions  in  the  same  sentence 
the  salutations  of  the  whole  church.  Other  Corinthian 
friends  of  his  were  "  Erastus  the  treasurer  of  the  city," 
and  "  Quartus  the  brother  "  and  Lucius  and  Jason  and 
Sosipater.14 

Paul  stayed  with  these  friends  for  three  months^^  and 
while  here  wrote  the  note  for  Phoebe  of  Cenchreae 
bespeaking  her  a  welcome  in  Ephesus.  Why  Phoebe 
is  going  to  Ephesus  we  have  no  indication,  but  she  was 
apparently  sta^'ing  long  enough  to  wish  to  enter  into 
fellowship  with  the  Ephesian  brotherhoods.  Paul 
seems  to  be  glad  to  do  this  friendly  courtesy  for  Phoebe 
and   takes   the  occasion    to    send    warm  greetings   to 

^  I  Cor.  xvi.  I  shows  that  Paul  asked  them  to  contribute, 
and  Acts  xx.  4  shows  that  they  did,  since  Gaius  of  Derbe,  and 
Timothy  from  Lystra  were  in  the  party  who  carried  the  money. 

1°  2  Cor.  viii.   1-4.  "  2  Cor.  ii.  5. 

12  2  Cor.  vii.  2,   II.     See  ch.  XVII.,  p.  199. 

^^  Rom.  xvi.  23.  Probably  this  is  the  Gaius  that  he  had 
baptized,     i  Cor.  i.  14. 

^*  Rom.  xvi.  21-24. 

15  Acts  XX.  2,  3.  This  reference  to  three  months  in  Greece 
must  refer  to  this  stay  in  Corinth 


PAUL    RISKS    HIS   LIFE    FOR   HIS    BRETHREN  203 

"  Prisca  and  Aquila  "  and  many  other  friends  and, 
also,  to  warn  them  against  allowing  any  divisions. 
He  rejoices  over  the  good  report  he  has  from  them  and 
tells  them  to  be  "  wise  unto  that  which  is  good  and 
simple  unto  that  which  is  evil."  Timothy  joins  Paul 
in  salutations  as  does  Tertius,  Paul's  scribe. i^ 

It  was  here  in  Corinth  that  the  Roman  letter  also 
was  written  as  is  clear  from  the  references  in  it  to  the 
collection  which  is  about  to  be  taken  to  Jerusalem.!"^ 
Why  does  Paul  write  to  the  Romans  whom  he  has  never 
seen  ?  He  answers  this  question  in  the  opening  of 
his  letter. 

"  I  long  to  see  you  that  I  may  impart  unto  you 
some  spiritual  gift  .  .  .  that  I  with  you  may  be 
comforted  in  you,  each  of  us  by  the  other's  faith 
.  .  .  .  Oftentimes  I  purposed  to  come  unto  you 
(and  was  hindered  hitherto)  that  I  might  have  some  fruit 
in  you  as  in  the  rest  of  the  Gentiles." 

He  had  been  hoping  and  praying  that  he  might  go 
straight  on  from  Corinth  to  Rome^^  but  now  he  feels 
that  he  must  again  give  up  Rome  .because  of  the 
"  ministering  unto  the  saints "  in  Jerusalem,!^  and 
must  content  himself  with  a  letter  to  the  capitol  city. 

Paul  was  a  Roman  citizen,  all  his  life  had  been  spent 
in  the  Roman  Empire  and  all  his  work  had  been  a  con- 
quest of  provinces  of  the  Roman  Empire  for  Christ. 
That  he  had  dreamed  of  winning  the  whole  of  the  Empire 
for  his  Master  and  had  definitely  worked  towards  Rome 
as  a  goal  is  shown  by  the  following  statement  : 

"  From  Jerusalem  round  about  even  unto  Illyricum, 
I  have  fully  preached  the  gospel  of  Christ,  yea,  making 

i«  Rom.  xvi.  21.  See  ch.  XVI.,  p.  169,  and  ch.  XVII., 
P-  193- 

1^  Rom.  XV.  25,  26,  31.  Note  that  since  writing  i  Cor.  xvi.  3,4, 
Paul  has  decided  that  it  is  best  for  him  to  go  to  Jerusalem. 

^8  Rom.  i.  9-13. 

^^  Rom.  XV.  25. 


-^04  THK    I.IKJ-:    AND    MIMSTKY   OF    PAUL 

it  my  aim  so  to  preach  the  gospel,  not  where  Christ 
was  ah'cach'  named,  that  T  mip^ht  not  Iniild  upon  another 
man's  founchition- — ^l)ut  now,  ha\'ing  no  more  any  place 
in  these  regions,  and  having  these  many  years  a  longing 
to  come  unto  you,  whensoever  I  go  unto  Spain,  for  1 
hope  to  see  you  in  my  journey. "20 

Paul  was  no  haphazard  campaigner.  In  his  mind's 
eye  he  saw  the  great  Roman  Empire,  and  in  his  heart  he 
took  it  for  Christ  and  gave  to  its  people  the  joy  of  the 
new  Christ-life.  The  great  empire  cast  its  spell  over 
him  as  it  had  over  many  a  man.  But  he  was  not  seeking 
glory  or  advantage  himself  from  this  empire.  He  did  not 
wish  even  to  interfere  with  any  other  man's  work  in  it. 
He  longed  to  see  Rome  not  because  he  could  found  a 
Pauline  Church  there,  since  already  there  was  a  Christian 
community2i,  but  because  it  was  Rome,  the  heart  of 
the  empire  in  which  he  had  preached  the  gospel  as 
systematically  as  circumstances  permitted. 22  Rome 
in  a  sense  belonged  to  his  Gentile  world,  and  he  longs  to 
see  the  church  there  and  be  sure  that  it  is  thriving  as 
the  church  in  the  capital  should,  before  he  goes  on  to 
the  provinces  which  lie  beyond.  Spain  is  the  only 
province  he  mentions,  but  probably  he  means  to  travel 
by  land  and  take  in  Gaul.  And  who  knows  but  he  may 
have  thought  also  of  the  little  Roman  province  of 
Britain  lying  just  beyond  ?  But  since  he  feels  it  right 
to  delay  his  visit  to  Rome  and  the  provinces  beyond 
until  after  he  had  taken  the  collection  to  Jerusalem, 
he  writes  his  letter  to  the  Romans. 

^"  Rom.  XV.  19-24.  On  Illyricum,  see  ch.  XIII.,  p.  127. 
It  is  possible  that  Paul  might  have  come  over  to  Illyricum 
during  this  last  visit  to  Macedonia  and  Achaia. 

^^  There  is  no  evidence  to  show  who  founded  the  church  at 
Rome.  Later  tradition  says  it  was  Peter.  Probably  it  was 
founded  by  merchants  and  slaves  and  Christian  workmen 
whose  business  took  them  to  Rome. 

22  Look  at  the  map,  and  see  how  he  had  gone  right  round  the 
Mediterranean,  taking  province  by  province  of  the  Empire. 
He  had  been  compelled  to  skip  Asia  at  first,  but  had  come  back 
to  it  and  now  he  is  looking  to  Rome  and  Spain. 


PAUL    RISKS    HIS    LIFE    FOR    HIS    BRETHREN         205 

In  this  letter  he  has  stated  his  Gospel  more  fully  than 
elsewhere. 23  He  calls  it  "  the  power  of  God  unto 
salvation."  That  the  Gentiles  need  this  power  is  clear 
because  they  have  disregarded  the  fact  that  "  God  is 
manifest  in  them  "  and  has  spoken  to  them  through 
nature, 24  that  the  Jews  also  need  a  different  way  of 
righteousness  is  apparent  from  the  fact  that  by  the 
works  of  the  Law  no  one  stands  justified  before  God. 25 
It  is  for  this  reason  that, 

"  Now  apart  from  the  law  .  .  .  hath  been 
manifested  .  .  .  the  righteousness  of  God  through 
faith  in  Jesus  Christ. "26 

This  puts  Jew  and  Gentile  on  the  same  basis,  for 
both  mav  be  "  justified  by  faith."  Paul  states  his 
doctrine  of  justification27  by  faith  thus  : 

"  To  him  that  worketh  not,  but  believeth  on  him 
that  justifieth  the  ungodly,  his  faith  is  reckoned  for 
righteousness. "28 

Does  Paul  mean  to  teach,  then,  that  God  accepts  faith 
in  place  of  righteousness  ?  He  certainly  seems  to 
maintain  this  when  he  argues  that  Abraham  was  not 
"  justified  by  works  "  but  by  faith. 29  But  how  can 
faith  take  the  place  of  righteous  deeds  ?  Is  it  not  im- 
moral to  allow  anything  to  take  the  place  of  righteousn  ess  ? 
This  question  takes  us  to  the  point  that  is  often  missed 
by  Paul's  critics  which  is,  that  faith  is  not,  in  Paul's 
thinking,  a  mere  belief  or  anything  whatsoever  that 
usurps  the  place  of  righteousness  but  is  a  force  producing 
true  inner  righteousness.    It  is,  in  fact,  another  name  for 

2^  Rom.  i.   15-16. 

2*  Rom.  i.    18-32.       Rom.  ii.  15. 

^^  Rom.  ii.    i-iii.  20. 

^'^  Rom.  iii.   20-28. 

^'  Justification  is  a  legal  term  connected  with  the  Jewish  idea 
of  the  Judgment  Day  when  everyone  hoped  to  stand  before  God 
justified,  that  is,  uncondemned. 

^  Rom.  iv.  5. 

^■^  Rom.  iv.   1-25.     See  ch.  XV.,  pp.   154-156. 


?06  THE    LIFE    A\D    MIN'ISTKY   OF    PAUL 

the  Gospel  which  he  has  here  defined  as  "  the  power  of 
God  unto  salvation."  He  points  out  that  when  one 
is  "  justified  by  faith  "  one  has  "  the  love  of  God 
.  shed  abroad  in  the  heart. "^^^  Clearly,  only 
righteousness  can  flow  from  the  love  of  God  in  the  heart. 
Faith  is.  then,  to  Paul  an  inner  connection  with  God.^i 
through  Christ,  which  naturally  produces  God-likeness. 

Faith  is  simply  one  aspect  of  Love  and  Love  secures 
"  peace  with  God  "  at  once.  In  the  new  Faith  P3ra 
it  is  no  longer  necessary  to  think  of  God  as  a  Judge 
who  will  carefully  balance  the  good  and  evil  deeds  of 
a  life  to  determine  whether  that  life  will  be  justified 
either  here  or  at  the  Judgment  Da}^  but  rather  as  a 
Father  who  longs  for  the  love  of  his  children  now,  and 
knows  that  true  loving  acts  must  inevitably  flow  from 
Love.  Deeds  can  be  truly  righteous,  indeed,  only  if  they 
flow  from  Love.  Faith,  therefore,  is  the  best  guarantee 
of  Righteousness.  God,  our  Father,  accepts,  then, 
the  longings,  the  ideals,  the  faith  and  love  of  our  hearts 
responding  at  orxe  with  peace,  joy,  love. 

But  why  does  Paul  so  often  emphasize  that  this 
life-giving  Faith  is  "  in  Jesus  Christ,"  especially  why 
does  he  so  often  connect  it  with  the  death  of  Christ 
as  he  definitely  does  here  in  Romans  ?  It  is  because 
the  death  of  Christ  is  to  him  the  supreme  expression 
of  that  love  of  God  which  responds  to  the  faith 
of  his  children.  The  opposite  might  seem  to  be  implied 
by  his  use  of  the  word  "  propitiation  "^2  ^ut  it  is  certain 
that  Paul  did  not  mean  that    God    was    angry    with 

^°  Rom.  V.   1-5.  31  See  ch.  X.,  p.  105. 

32  Rom.  iii.  25.  The  word  propitiation  is  exceedingly  difficult 
to  translate  because  it  is  here  an  adjective  with  which  a  noun 
must  be  understood.  But  what  noun  ?  Should  we  supply 
sacrifice — a  propitiatory  sacrifice  ?  But  it  is  by  no  means 
certain  that  Paul  is  thinking  of  a  sacrifice  here,  though  the 
words  "  by  his  blood  "  give  some  support  to  that  interpretation. 
Should  one  supply  a  propitiatory  "  thing,"  or  "  being,"  or 
"  person  "  ?  Since  Paul  does  not  make  the  idea  more  definite, 
and  since  he  uses  the  term  nowhere  else,  it  cannot  be  certain  what 
he  means  and  it  cannot  be  so  fundamental  to  his  thought  as 


PAUL   RISKS    HIS    LIFE    FOR    HIS    BRETHREN         207 

man  and  had  to  be  propitiated  to  make  him  kind  as 
the  heathen  tried  to  propitiate  their  gods  with  gifts 
or  sacrifices.  On  the  contrary  Paul  definitely  says 
that  it  was  the  "  grace  "^^  of  God  Himself  that  "set 
forth "  Jesus  as  a  propitiation.  It  is  precisely  by 
the  fact  that  "  Christ  died  for  us  "  that  "  God  commends 
His  love  towards  us."^^  So  far  from  God's  needing 
to  be  propitiated  and  reconciled  to  us,  Paul  says  that, 
"  We  were  reconciled  to  God  by  the  death  of  His 
Son. "35  Nevertheless  we  are  actually  saved  from  the 
"  wrath  "  of  God  which  would  necessarily  have  come 
upon  us  if  He  had  not  shown  us  a  way  to  destroy  sin, 
for  the  "  wages  of  sin  is  death. "^6     ^q  wonder  that 

theology  has  made  it.  It  seems  probable  that  he  uses  it  this  one 
time  with  the  central  idea  of  the  term,  that  is,  to  express  the  fact 
that  Jesus  accomplished,  namely,  the  bringing  of  harmony 
between  the  estranged.  He  does  not  say  how  he  brought 
harmony,  though  the  words  "by  his  blood"  indicate  that  Paul 
is  thinking  of  his  death,  but  not  necessarily  as  a  sacrifice.  Now 
this  same  word  propitiatory — or  propitiation — was  applied  by  the 
Jews  to  the  Mercy-seat  in  the  Holy  of  Holies,  and  it  is  so  trans- 
lated in  Heb.  ix.  5.  Paul  may  possibly  be  thinking  of  the 
Mercy-seat.  At  any  rate,  we  can  be  sure  only  of  this,  that 
Jesus  was  propitiatory,  because  he  brought  harmony  between 
God  and  man. 

^^  Rom.  iii.  24,   25. 

34  Rom.  V.  8. 

3^  Rom.  V.   10  ;    2  Cor.  v.   18-20. 

3^  Rom.  V.  9  and  vi.  23.  But  there  is  nothing  in  Paul  that 
proves  that  he  held  an^^thing  like  a  doctrine  of  substitutionary 
atonement.  He  does  not  say  anywhere  that  Jesus  paid  the 
penalty  for  our  sins  in  place  of  us.  He  does  say  that  he  became 
"  a  curse  for  us  "  (Gal.  iii.  13),  and  "  sin  on  our  behalf  " 
(2  Cor.  V.  21),  but  this  does  not  with  certainty  mean  more  than 
that  it  was  for  our  sake  that  he  suffered  as  if  he  were  a  sinner. 
It  was  in  order  that  he  might  show  us  how  to  be  holy  children 
of  God  upon  whom  love  might  come  instead  of  wrath.  Further- 
more, there  is  nothing  to  indicate  that  Jesus  had  to  pay  the 
penalty  for  our  past  sins.  On  the  contrary,  Paul  says  that  God 
looked  with  "  forbearance  "  upon  the  past  (Rom.  iii.  25),  "  not 
reckoning  unto  them  their  trespasses"  (2  Cor.  v.  19).  To  use 
later  theological  terms,  Jesus'  death,  according  to  Paul,  is  not 
necessarily  substitutionary,  but  is  certainly  vicarious,  that  is, 
it  was  not  in  place  of  others,  but  was  for  the  sake  of  others. 


208  THE    LIFE    AND   MINISTRY   OF   PAUL 

Paul  marvelled  that  the  love  of  God  should  save  us 
from  His  wrath  ! 

Since,  then,  it  is  the  death  of  Christ  that  reveals  the 
love  of  God^7  which  can  unite  man  and  God  by  faith, it 
can  be  spoken  of  as  a  propitiation  or  as  "  our  passover  " 

3'  The  passages  cited  below  and  many  more  which  might  be 
collected,  make  it  clear  that,  in  Paul's  thinking,  Jesus'  death 
did  express  the  love  of  Christ,  and  the  love  of  God.  but  they 
leave  unanswered  the  question,  How  ?  It  is  practically  im- 
possible to  know  now  exactly  how  Paul  thought  it  out,  but 
we  will  look  briefly  at  a  few  of  the  passages  : 

[a)  One  text  in  Gal.  iii.  13  makes  fairly  clear  one  phase  of  his 
thought  which  was  that  Jesus'  death  broke  the  curse  of  the  Law. 
Since  he  was  holy,  God  did  not  allov/  him  to  remain  accursed, 
although  the  Law  pronounced  all  who  were  crucified  accursed. 
This  is  an  explanation  coming  entirely  out  of  Paul's  Jewish 
training.  It  supposes  that  the  Law  could  not  be  done  away 
without  the  breaking  and  doing  away  with  its  curse.  God's 
vindication  of  the  holy  death  of  Jesus  did  exactly  that.  See 
ch.  VI.,  p.  56.  for  further  discussion  of  the  passage. 

[h)  Rom.  iii.  24-26.  See  p.  206  and  p.  207.  Jesus  is  a 
propitiation,  but  Jiow  he  became  so  is  not  explained. 

[c)  Rom.  v.  6-1 1  states  more  elaborately  than  many  passages 
that  we  are  "  justified  by  his  blood,"  that  is,  by  his  death  we 
are  reconciled,  but  gives  no  indication  whatsoever  as  to  how  this 
is  true.  It  is  interesting  that  this  passage  points  out  that  though 
we  are  reconciled  by  his  death,  we  are  "  saved  by  his  life." 

[d)  Rom.  viii.  2,  3.  says,  "God,  sending  his  own  Son  in  the 
likeness  of  sinful  flesh  and  ('  as  an  offering '  is  added  by  translators, 
but  is  by  no  means  certainly  implied)  for  sin,  condemned  sin  in 
the  flesh."  But  Jiow  did  Jesus  condemn  sin  ?  Was  it  by  his 
death,  or  by  his  holy  life,  or  both  ?  Paul  does  not  explain. 
However,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  it  is  the  Spirit  of  life  in 
Christ  Jesus  that  frees  from  the  Law.  This  shows  that  Paul  at 
least  is  not  thinking  of  the  death  of  Jesus  as  a  separate  fact. 

[e)  Rom.  vi.  6-1 1  states  Paul's  mystical  explanation.  "  We 
died  with  Christ."  "  Our  old  man  was  crucified  with  him." 
According  to  this,  Christ  died  because  we  need  to  die;  in  order  to 
raise  us  to  holiness  he  identified  himself  with  all  our  needs  and 
died  that  we  might  die  with  him  and  rose  again  that  we  might 
live  the  holy  life  with  him.  2  Cor.  v.  14 — "  One  died  for  all, 
therefore  all  died,"  might  seem  to  imply  that  all  died  at  the  time 
of  Jesus'  crucifixion,  by  some  legal  fiction,  but  that  he  does  not 
mean  that  is  shown  by  the  rest  of  the  chapter,  where  each 
Christian  is  shown  to  actually  die,  so  that  old  things  pass  away 
and  all  things  become  new  "  in  Christ."  See  Rom.  vii.  1-6  for 
another  statement  of  death  to  the  Law  and  sin,  and  life  "  in 


PAUL    RISKS    HIS    LIFE    FOR   HIS    BRETHREN         209 

or  as  a  "  redemption  "  or  "  an  odour  of  a  sweet  smell. "^s 
All  these  are  but  terms  chosen  to  attempt  to  make 
clearer  the  central  fact,  known  by  experience,  that 
Jesus  has  introduced  a  way  of  righteousness  that  does 
actually  conquer  sin  in  the  soul. 

But  the  language  in  which  Paul  most  completely  sets 
forth  the  spiritual  experience  underlying  his  doctrine 
of  justification  b}'  faith  in  Christ  is  that  in  which  he  shows 
the  mystical  unity  with  the  death  and  resurrection  of 
Christ.  Sin  does  not  continue  in  the  life  that  has  been 
buried  with  Christ  and  has  risen  with  him  to  "  newness 
of  life. "39  Paul  has  a  picturesque  name  for  the  part  of 
the  person  that  dies  when  one  is  united  to  Christ  by 
faith — "  our  old  man,"  he  calls  it : 

"  Our  old  man  was  crucified  with  him,  that  the  body 
of  sin  might  be  done  away."*^ 

newness  of  the  spirit."  Also  Rom.  v.  12-21,  where  in  Christ, 
the  new  Adam,  all  may  find  "  justification  of  life." 

Paul  has  certainly  been  wrongly  estimated  as  primarily  a 
theologian,  his  letters  show  that  he  is  primarily  interested  in 
spiritual  experience.  Only  a  small  portion  of  his  writings  deal 
with  theology,  and  often  it  is  not  thoroughly  worked  out.  He  was 
a  man  with  a  rich  spiritual  life,  who  wished  to  impart  it  to 
others,  and  one  of  the  marvellous  things  about  him  was  his 
power  of  helping  others  into  his  own  type  of  spiritual  life.  For 
his  intellectual  explanations  he  had  to  use  the  language  and  ideas 
of  his  time,  and  no  doubt  his  words  w'ere  more  intelligible  then 
than  now.  His  mystical  explanation  of  Christ's  death  probably 
meant  most  to  the  Gentiles,  and  his  words  about  the  Law  and  the 
Gospel  were  most  helpful  to  the  Jews.  But  the  incompleteness 
of  all  his  explanations  in  his  letters  indicates  that  his  interest 
and  power  did  not  lie  ,primarily  in  convincing  others  of  his 
intellectual  position  but  rather  in  imparting  his  abounding  life 
of  love  and  joy.  He  refused  to  be  a  philosopher  or  theologian, 
and  chose  to  be  a  minister  of  Faith  and  Love. 

^^  "  Passover  " — i  Cor.  v.  7.  Here  the  context  shows  that 
Paul  is  using  passover  as  a  symbol  (see  ch.  XVI.,  p.  172). 
"  Redemption  " — Rom.  iii.  24  and  i  Cor.  i.  30.  There  is  no 
indication  as  to  what  the  process  of  redemption  is — whether  a 
price  paid  or  life  given.  "  Odor  " — Eph.  v.  2.  Evidently 
figurative.  How  far  Paul  uses  any  of  these  w^ords  figuratively, 
and  how  far  literally,  is  very  difficult  to  determine. 

^^  Rom.  vi.   23.  ^^  Rom.  vi.  6. 


210  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

Since  faith  in  the  death  of  Christ  means  to  each  of 
his  followers  death  to  the  baser  part  of  the  nature  and 
life  to  the  nobler  Christ-like  qualities,  it  brings  one 
into  harmony  with  God.-^^  That  attainment  to  this 
unity  of  experience  with  Christ  is  indeed  like  passing 
through  the  darkness  of  death  to  life,  Paul  himself 
knows  when  he  remembers  the  time  when  his  "  old 
man  "  was  like  a  body  of  death  fastened  upon  him  and 
he  was  struggling  painfully  between  the  carnal  and  the 
spiritual.-*-  He  knows  it,  too,  in  the  daily  dying  with 
Christ.43 

But  he  knows,  also,  that  one  not  only  dies  with  him 
but  lives  with  him  ;  that  after  the  crucifixion  with  Christ 
there  follows  the  joyous  living  in  his  presence.  Then 
"  the  law  of  the  Spirit  of  life  "  is  within  one*^  indeed, 
"  Christ  is  in  you."  From  this  it  is  quite  clear  that 
when  Paul  speaks  of  the  death  of  Jesus  he  includes  the 
resurrection.  It  is  not  merely  death,  but  victorious 
death,  death  issuing  in  life  that  saves. ^^  jj-^e  value 
of  dying  with  Christ  consists  in  the  ability  it  gives  one 
to  have  "  the  life  also  of  Jesus  "  *'  manifested  in  our 
mortal  flesh."46 

Now  this  Christ-like  life  is  really  the  life  of  the  Spirit. 
To  have  Christ  within  us  is  to  have  the  Spirit  of  God'*'' 
directing  one's  life,  and  this  is  to  become  a  son  of  God.^^ 
How  incomparable,  indeed,  as  Paul  says,  are  the  suffer- 
ings of  d^'ing  with  Christ  to  the  "  liberty  of  the  glory  of 
the  children  of  God  !  "^^ 

Entering  into  this  life  v/ith  Christ  it  follows  that  one 
is  "  conformed    to  the  image  of   his  Son,"   and  that 

*^  This  is  the  same  thing  as  justification  by  faith. 

■*2  Rom.  vii.  7-25.     See  ch.  IV.,  p.  47. 

*'  I  Cor.  XV.  31. 

•**  Rom.   viii.    i,   2. 

^^  Rom.  V.   10  ;    iv.  25;     i  Cor.  xv.   17;    2  Cor.  iv.   10,   11. 

*^  2  Cor.  iv.   25. 

*'   Rom.   viii.   5-1 1. 

^^  Rom.  viii.    12-16. 

*3  Rom.  viii.    17-25. 


PAUL   RISKS    HIS   LIFE    FOR    HIS    BRETHREN         211 

Christ  becomes  "  the  first-born  among  many  brethren, "^o 
Such  a  marvellous  transforming  power  is  faith  in  Christ 
that  it  makes  us  brothers  to  Christ  !  And  it  takes  faith 
both  in  the  crucified  and  in  the  living  Christ  to  attain 
to  fellowship  with  God,  because  the  self-denying,  love- 
expressing,  Christ-like  life  is  the  God-like  life.  Because 
Christ's  love  is  to  Paul  the  manifestation  of  God's  love 
he  writes, 

"  Who  shall  separate  us  from  the  love  of  Christ?  "^i 
and  replies  that  nothing  in  heaven  or  earth  "  shall  be 
able  to  separate  us  from  the  love  of  God,  which  is  in  Christ 
Jesus  our  Lord." 

The  desire  which  is  taking  Paul  to  Jerusalem  now 
instead  of  Rome  finds  expression  in  the  Roman  letter, 
where  he  says  that  he  is  so  filled  with  sorrow  because  his 
brethren  have  rejected  Christ  that  he  could  even  wish 
himself  "  anathema  from  Christ,"  if  he  might  help 
them.^"^  He  expresses  also  his  faith  that  God  has  not 
cast  off  His  people^^  though  many  of  them  seem  to  have 
rejected  the  Gospel.  Paul  compares  the  Jews  to  an 
olive  tree,  and  the  Gentiles  to  a  grafted  branch  from  a 
wild  olive  and  asks, 

"  H  thou  wast  cut  out  of  that  which  is  by  nature  a 
wild  olive  tree,  and  wast  grafted  contrary  to  nature  into 
a  good  olive  tree  ;  how  much  more  shall  these,  which 
are  the  natural  branches,  be  grafted  into  their  own  olive 
tree  ?  "5* 

^^  Rom.  viii.   28-30. 

^1  Rom.  viii.   31-39.     ' 

^2  Rom.  ix.  3.  Chapters  ix.-xi.  of  Romans  is  a  discussion  of  the 
problem  of  the  relation  of  the  Jews  to  the  Gospel.  It  is  difficult 
to  follow ;  Paul  states  forcibly  the  sovereignty  of  God,  especially 
His  right  to  destroy  the  Jews  if  He  wishes.  But  note  that  Paul 
does,  in  fact,  put  the  responsibility  upon  the  Jews  themselves 
for  not  finding  true  righteousness.  They  have  not  sought  in 
the  right  way.  See  ix.  30-x.  9.  They  have  rejected  the  word  of 
faith,  which  is  "  nigh  thee." 

'"^  Rom.  xi.   iff. 

^*  Rom.  xi,    16-24. 


212  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

He  confidently  looks  forward  to  the  time  of  the 
"  fulness  of  the  Gentiles  "^•''  when  they  by  the  power  of 
their  Christian  lives  shall  be  able  to  help  the  Jews  to 
see  that  the  Gospel  is  the  true  climax  of  their  histor}^ 

It  may  seem  strange  that  Paul  should  write  all  this 
about  the  Jews  to  the  Gentile  church  at  Rome,  but  it 
was  because  he  wanted  them  to  see  that  they,  too, 
have  a  part  in  the  "  good  and  acceptable  and  perfect" 
plans  of  God,-''*^  that  they  may  live  up  to  their  highest, 
presenting  their  whole  being  as  "  a  living  sacrifice  " 
to  God.  No  doubt  Paul  thought  that  the  church 
at  the  capitol  city  would  have  much  to  do  with  the 
bringing  in  of  the  "  fulness  of  the  Gentiles."  He 
wishes  to  urge,  therefore,  that  each  one  of  them  find 
his  part  in  the  work  of  the  church,  and  do  it  well^^  ^^d 
that  the  wdiole  of  their  lives  be  kept  up  to  the  highest 
moral  and  spiritual  standard.  He  points  out  to  them 
that  the  Gospel  of  the  Kingdom  which  they  have  entered 
consists  of  such  spiritual  things  as  "  righteousness  and 
peace  and  joy  "  which  they  ought  to  make  prevail  in  the 
world.  ^8 

Sending  off  the  letter  to  the  Romans  probably  by 
one  of  the  many  travellers  to  that  city  Paul  turns  toward 
Jerusalem  with  his  gift,  though  he  knows  that  he  is 
going  into  the  midst  of  enemies. ^^  He  means  to  put 
into  practice  his  statement  that  he  would  be  willing 
to  endure  anything  if  he  might  win  his  brethren. ^o  Now 
he  is  about  to  risk  his  life  for  his  brethren.  He  must 
establish  fellowship  between  Jewish  and  Gentile 
Christians.  Otherwise  there  is  no  hope  that  the  Jews 
will  accept  Christ. 

Apparenth'  evidence  of  the  enmity  of  the  Jews  met 
him  even  before  leaving  Corinth,  He  had  meant  to 
sail  straight  from  Cenchreae  to  Joppa,  but  a  plot  of  the 

"^  Rom.  xi,    12,   25. 

''^  Rom.  xii.   i,   2.  ^"^  Rom.  xii.    1-18. 

^^  Rom.  xii.  9-xv.   13.     These  chapters  are  among  the  finest 
of  the  passages  showing  the  practical  side  of  the  GospeL 
^^  Rom.  XV.   30,   31.  *'*'  See  above  p.  211. 


PAUL   RISKS   HIS   LIFE   FOR   HIS   BRETHREN  213 

Jews,  perhaps  to  take  his  hfe  on  board,  caused  him  to 
change  his  plans  and  start  for  Macedonia. ^i  Again  Paul 
shows  his  belief  in  the  power  of  living  epistles  and  has 
delegates  appointed  from  the  Gentile  churches  to  go 
with  their  gift  of  love.^^  In  Macedonia  Paul  is  joined 
once  more  by  his  "  beloved  physician,"  Luke,  who  now 
continues  the  narrative  with  the  pronoun  "  we."  After 
the  Passover  feast  in  Philippi  they  travelled  again  to- 
gether across  the  ^Egean  Sea.^^  At  Troas  they  found 
the  delegates  from  Macedonia,  Galatia,  Achaia  and  Asia 
waiting  for  them.^*  Here  they  remained  a  week,  and 
Luke  tells  of  one  night  when  they  talked  together  until 
midnight  when  a  young  man  Eutychus  was  so  overcome 
with  sleep  that  he  fell  out  of  the  third-stor}'  window. 
But  Paul  ran  down  and  declared  that  his  life  was  still 
in  him.65  The  company  seem  to  have  broken  bread 
together  at  midnight  and  then  to  have  talked  till  dawn. 
Probably  this  all-night  gathering  was  due  to  the  great 
interest  in  Paul's  dangerous  journey  to  Jerusalem  and 
the  fear  lest  they  should  not  see  him  again. ^6 

From  Troas  Paul  went  by  land  across  a  hilly  peninsula 
to  Assos  while  Luke  and  the  delegates  went  around  by 
boat. 67     Picking  up  Paul  at  Assos  they  came  to  the  beauti- 

^1  Acts  XX.  3. 

^2  There  is  nothing  in  Paul's  letters  about  these  delegates,  and, 
strangely,  Luke  gives  no  reason  either,  for  Paul's  journey  to 
Jerusalem,  or  for  those  who  go  with  him,  except  the  desire  to 
attend  the  feast  (verse  16).     See,  however,  Acts  xxiv.  17. 

^3  Acts  XX.  6.  See  ch.  XI.,  p.  112,  for  an  account  of  their 
earlier  journey  from  Troas  to  Philippi. 

^*  Acts  XX.  4,  5. 

^5  Acts  XX.  7-12.  Luke  says  the  young  man  was  "  taken  up 
dead."  Does  he  mean  to  imply  that  Paul  raised  him  from  the 
dead  ?  Here  we  seem  to  see  a  strange  event  in  the  process  of 
being  turned  into  a  miracle  by  the  reporter. 

^^  Since  that  was  the  feeling  of  those  whom  he  met  at  Miletus 
probably  it  was  here  too.     See  p.  214. 

^^  See  map.  All  this  coast  was  famous  in  the  early  literary 
history  of  Greece — from  the  seventh  to  fourth  century,  B.C. 
Lesbos  was  the  home  of  the  poet  Sappho,  Chios  was  said  to  be 
the  home  of  Homer,  at  least  a  school  of  Homeric  poets  flourished. 


214  THE   LIFE   AND   MINISTRY   OF   PAUL 

fill  harbour  of  Mitylcncon  the  island  of  Lesbos.  Passing 
along  the  coast  between  the  island  of  Chios  and  the  main- 
land, they  touched  at  Samos  and  Miletus. ^^  From  here 
Paul  sent  a  messenger  to  Ephesus  to  ask  the  elders*^^ 
to  come  to  see  him.  That  he  did  not  go  to  them  instead, 
probably  indicates  that  it  would  have  been  still 
dangerous  for  him  to  be  seen  there,  for  he  certainly 
could  have  gone  to  Ephesus  without  staying.  When 
the  Ephesian  brethren  came — perhaps  Aquila,  Priscilla, 
Gains,  etc.,— Paul  reminded  them  of  his  ministry 
in  the  midst  of  afflictions  in  Ephesus,  and  told  them 
that  he  knew  that  he  was  now  risking  his  life  to 
accomplish  his  purpose  in  Jerusalem,  and  that  they 
would  see  his  face  no  more.  Then  he  "  kneeled  down 
and  prayed  with  them  all,"  and  they  expressed  to  him 
their  love  and  sorrow,  coming  with  him  to  the  ship.^o 
Passing  Cos  and  Rhodes'^o^  they  landed  at  Patara,  where 
they  fortunately  found  a  freight  boat  sailing  for  Phoenicia 


there.  Samos  was  the  home  of  the  Greek  philosopher  Pythagoras 
and  of  a  school  of  sculptors.  Thales,  the  father  of  Greek 
philosophy  and  science,  lived  at  Miletus  and  also  Anaximander 
who  constructed  the  first  map,  and  Hecataeus,  who  wrote  the 
first  geography.  In  Paul's  day  this  coast  was  rich  and  pros- 
perous, but  famous  chiefly  for  its  past. 

®^  Ramsay  says  that  the  places  named  mark  the  stops  that 
the  ship  made  each  night,  because  the  wind  in  the  iEgean  in 
the  summer  blows  from  the  north  all  day,  and  from  the  south  all 
night.  This  would  mean  that  it  took  four  days  to  Miletus. 
From  here  Ramsay  reckons  it  would  take  three  days  to  get 
a  messenger  to  Ephesus,  and  for  the  eld3rs  to  travel  back. 
"  St.  Paul  the  Traveller  and  Roman  Citizen,"  p.  293  ff. 

^^  "  Elders  "  were  not  necessarily  officials,  but  simply  the 
older  members. 

''•  Acts  XX.  18-38.  The  use  of  "we"  shows  that  Luke  was 
present  on  this  occasion,  hence  his  report  is  of  special  interest. 
Note  that  it  is  here  in  verse  35  that  a  saying  of  Jesus,  not 
otherwise  known,  is  quoted. 

'"'  Cos  was  famous  as  the  home  of  Hippocrates,  the  "  Father 
of  Medicine,"  and  Rhodes  had  produced  good  men  in  many 
branches  of  culture.  Both  islands  were  rising  to  the  height 
of  their  commercial  power  in  Paul's  day. 


PAUL   RISKS   HIS   LIFE   FOR   HIS    BRETHREN         215 

and  took  it.  After  possibl}'  a  call  at  Myra^i  and  sighting 
Cyprus  on  the  left  they  came  to  Tyre,  and  remained  a 
week  while  the  ship  unloaded.  Paul  and  his  com- 
panions decided  to  hunt  up  "  the  disciples  "  in  T^^re. 
One  wonders  where  they  looked  and  how  they  found 
them.  At  any  rate,  as  soon  as  they  were  found  they 
showed  great  interest  in  the  travellers,  although  thev 
may  not  have  known  any  of  them  personally.  But 
the}^  certainly  would  have  heard  of  Paul  and  they  thought 
he  was  undertaking  so  dangerous  an  enterprise  that  they 
scarcely  thought  he  would  even  reach  Jerusalem.  But, 
having  spent  a  week  at  Tyre,  they  said  farewell  to  the 
families  of  the  Tyrian  disciples^-  and  went  on  to 
Ptolemais,  and  after  saluting  "  the  brethren  "  there, 
and  spending  a  day,  on  to  Caesarea,  where  they  found 
many  friends.  They  went  to  the  house  of  Philip  who 
had  been  a  disciple  of  Jesus,  whose  four  daughters 
"  did  prophesy."  One  wonders  how  they  exercised 
their  gift  of  prophecy.  Probably  they  spoke  in  the 
meetings  for  worship.  Agabus,  a  prophet  who  had 
come  from  Judaea,  warned  Paul  in  the  symbolical 
fashion  of  the  Old  Testament  prophets  that  he  would 
be  bound  hand  and  foot  in  Jerusalem.  Paul's  friends 
besought  him  not  to  go  to  Jerusalem,  but  Paul's  resolve 
could  not  be  broken  and  he  replied, 

"  What  do  ye,  weeping  and  breaking  my  heart  ? 
For  I  am  ready  not  to  be  bound  only,  but  also  to  die 
at  Jerusalem.'"^^ 

With  the  compan}^  of  some  of  the  brethren  they  set 
out  over  land  toward  Jerusalem,  stopping  overnight 
at   some   village  on  the  way  at  the  home  of  an   early 

'1  Acts  xxi.  1-3.  Some  MSS.  add  "and  Myra  "  to  the  list 
of  places. 

'^'^  Acts  xxi.  4-8.  Ptolemais  is  the  Old  Testament  Accho  and 
the  present  Acre.  Caesarea  was  a  comparatively  new  city  built 
by  Herod  the  Great,  but  was  rapidly  becoming  the  most 
important  city  in  Palestine. 

^3  Acts  xxi.   8-14. 


2l6  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

disciple,    Mnason    of   Cyprus. 7*     Hospitality    certainly 
flourished  among  these  early  fellowships. 

Arrived  in  Jerusalem,  Paul  and  his  company  of  dele- 
gates were  received  by  James  and  "  the  elders,"  and 
doubtless  the  gift  from  the  Gentile  churches  was  pre- 
sented, though  Luke  reports  nothing  about  it.  Once 
more75  Paul  rehearses  to  the  Jerusalem  "  Pillars"  what 
God  has  wrought  among  the  Gentiles.  W  hen  he  stood 
among  the  "  Pillars  "  before  it  was  for  the  liberty  of  the 
Gentiles  from  the  Jewish  Law  ;  now  he  comes  to  show 
that  this  liberty  has  produced  love  among  the  Gentiles 
toward  the  Jews  and  that  he  himself  still  honours  his 
own  people  and  their  Law.  How^ever,  difficulty  arises 
at  once  because  thousands  of  Christians  in  Jerusalem 
who  keep  the  Law  misunderstand  Paul  to  have  no  respect 
whatsoever  for  the  Law.^e  The  "  Pillars,"  therefore, 
propose  a  plan  for  making  known  that  Paul  is  not  an 
enemy  of  the  Law.  They  propose  that  he  shall  pa}' 
the  charges  necessary  for  the  fulfilling  of  the  Xazarite 
vow  for  four  poor  men.  This  involves  taking  part  in 
the  purification  rites  in  the  temple  with  them  for  seven 
days.  Paul  accepts  the  advice  of  the  "  Pillars  "  since 
he  is  there  for  the  purpose  of  conciliation. "^^  g^t  the 
plan  failed  of  its  purpose,  for  certain  "  Jews  from  Asia." 
probably  some  of  his  Ephesian  enemies,  seeing  him  in 
the  temple,  suppose  he  has  taken  Trophimus,  the 
delegate  from   Ephesus,  into  the  part   of  the   temple 

'*  Acts  xxi.  15,  16.  Verse  16  probably  should  read  "  bringing 
us  to  one  Mnason."  Some  MSS.  read,  the  disciples  "  conducted 
us  where  we  should  find  entertainment  ;  and,  reaching  a  certain 
village,  we  were  in  the  house  of  Mnason,  an  early  disciple ;  and 
going  out  from  thence  we  came  to  Jerusalem." 

'5  Gal.  ii.  I  fi.     See  ch.  IX. 

"  The  narrative  says  that  they  thought  that  Paul  taught  the 
Jews  among  the  Gentiles  not  to  keep  the  Law.  This  charge  was 
false.  Paul  left  Jews  free  to  keep  the  Law  if  they  wished.  The 
only  exception  of  which  we  know  is  that  he  insisted  on  their 
laying  aside  their  rules  about  not  eating  with  Gentiles.  See 
ch.  X. 

"  Acts.  xxi.  His  action  is  not  inconsistent  with  his  position 
in  Galatians.     See  Gal.  vi.  15. 


PAUL    RISKS    HIS    LIFE    FOR    HIS    BRETHREN         217 

forbidden  to  Gentiles,  and  calling  out,  "  Men  of  Israel, 
help  !  "  rush  upon  him  and  rudely  drag  him  out  of  the 
temple,  while  others  shut  the  great  doors. 

They  are  about  to  kill  him  when  the  Roman  soldiers 
stationed  in  the  Tower  of  Antonia,  rushing  across 
the  court-yard,  come  to  his  rescue  by  arresting  him. 
Lysias,  the  chief  captain,  thinks  he  has  captured 
an  "  Egyptian  "  who  had  recently  stirred  up  a  Messianic 
revolution  at  the  head  of  a  band  of  "  Assassins,"  and 
he  is  astonished  to  hear  Paul  speak  Greek  when  asking 
if  he  may  speak  to  the  people  from  the  castle  steps. ^s 
Obtaining  permission,  Paul  "  beckoned  with  his  hand," 
and  "  when  there  was  a  great  silence  "  he  told  in  Aramaic 
of  his  early  Jewish  training,  his  conversion,  and  call 
to  preach  to  the  "  Gentiles." "^  The  Jewish  mob 
listened  until  he  uttered  the  word  "  Gentiles,"  then 
their  hatred  burst  forth  again,  and  the  chief  captain 
bore  Paul  into  off  the  castle,  and  ordered  him  to  be 
"  examined  by  scourging."  The  scourgers,  however, 
abandoned  their  task  when  they  saw  the  consternation 
of.  the  centurion  as  Paul  asked  if  it  were  lawful  to 
scourge  a  Roman  who  was  uncondemned.  The  soldier 
reported  at  once  to  Lysias,  who  was  astonished,  but 
compelled  to  believe  Paul  when  he  declared, 

"  I  am  a  Roman  born."80 

Henceforth  Paul  must  be  treated  with  respect,  but 
how  could  Lysias  deal  fairly  unless  he  understood  the 

'^  Acts  xxi.  27-38.  Josephus  speaks  of  this  Egyptian  in  his 
"  Wars,"  II.,  xiii.  8,  and  "  Ant.,"  XX.,  viii.  6.  Herod  the  Great 
had  rebuilt  the  Tower  of  Antonia  making  it  a  great  fortification. 
From  it  the  soldiers  could  watch  doings  in  the  temple. 

'^  Acts  xxi.  38-xxii.  21.  The  "we"  narrative  breaks  off  at 
xxi.  18,  therefore  it  is  not  certain  whether  Luke  was  present  at 
the  time  of  this  speech,  and  if  he  were  he  could  not  understand 
Aramaic.  However,  he  could  easily  learn  from  Paul  or  others 
the  general  outline  of  his  speech  and  what  forced  him  to  stop 
speaking. 

^^  Acts  xxii.  22-29.  Lysias  could  not  have  understood  a  word 
of  Paul's  Aramaic  speech  on  the  castle  stairs.  He  knows  nothing 
about  his  prisoner,  therefore,  or  the  cause  of  the  disturbance. 


2l8  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

charge  against  him  ?  To  attempt  to  get  Hght  on  the 
situation  he  assembled  the  Jewisli  Sanhech"in  the  next 
day.  It  was  a  stormy  scene,  Paul  himself  speaking 
angry  words  to  the  High  Priest,  and  the  Pharisees  and 
Sadducees  debating  bitterly  on  the  resurrection.  Feeling 
ran  so  high  that  Lysias  was  compelled  to  take  Paul 
away  from  this  august  assembly  lest  they  tear  him 
in  pieces.^i 

Paul  seems  to  have  had  only  one  friend  in  Jerusalem 
who  could  help  him.  His  sister's  son  made  his  way 
into  the  castle  and  warned  Paul  of  a  plot  by  forty  Jews 
to  kill  him  before  they  should  again  eat  or  drink.  Paul 
sent  the  boy  to  Lysias  who  "  took  him  by  the  hand  " 
and  led  him  to  a  private  place  to  hear  his  story.  This 
determined  Lysias  to  send  Paul  under  strong  guard, 
by  night,  to  Caesarea  and  a  letter  to  Felix,  the  governor, 
stating  that  he  knew  of  no  reason  why  Paul  should  be 
in  the  bonds.  ^2 

Arrived  in  Caesarea,  Paul  was  again  compelled  to  face 
his  enemies,  who  came  with  Tertullus,  an  orator,  to 
attempt  to  get  him  away  from  Roman  protection.  They 
charged  him  with  being  a  "  mover  of  insurrections," 
and  Felix  told  Paul  to  defend  himself  against  the  charge. 
This  he  did  by  reviewing  his  life  up  to  the  time—"  twelve 
days  ago  "—when  he  came  to  "  bring  alms  "^^  to  his 
nation,  not  to  stir  up  revolution.  Felix  saw  that  Paul 
was  innocent,  but  he  w^as  too  weak  to  act  contrary  to  the 
Jews.  He,  therefore,  told  them  that  he  would  postpone 
the  matter  until  Lysias  should  come  down.  But  Lysias 
never  came  and  this  proved  to  be  the  beginning  of  a 
long  imprisonment. 8^ 

^^  Acts  xxiii.  i-io.  As  none  of  Paul's  friends  were  present  at 
this  time,  it  is  not  certain  how  the  report  reaches  us. 

^2  Acts  xxiii.  12-35.  This  is  all  we  know  of  Paul's  sister's 
family  in  Jerusalem.     See  ch.  II.,  p.  27. 

^^  Acts  xxiv.  II.  This  is  the  only  place  where  Luke  speaks  of 
Paul's  gift  to  Jerusalem. 

^*  Acts  xxiv.  1-22.  The  foundations  of  old  Roman  build- 
ings can  still  be  seen  at  Caesarea,  down  close  to  the  sea.  Perhaps 
Paul's  prison  was  here. 


I 


PAUL    RISKS    HIS    LIFE    FOR    HIS    BRETHREN         219 

Felix  and  his  Jewish  wife  Drusilla,  were  interested 
enough  in  their  prisoner  to  ask  him  to  speak  before 
them.  They  both  were  unprincipled  characters,^^  and 
when  Paul  used  the  opportunity  to  speak  to  them  of 
"  righteousness  and  self-control  and  judgment  "  they 
were  terrified  and  heard  him  no  more  except  when  Felix 
was  prompted  by  the  hope  of  obtaining  a  bribe.  Paul's 
imprisonment  probably  left  him  free  to  receive  any 
friends  who  cared  to  come,  but  unfortunately  we  have 
no  record  of  the  efforts  which  must  have  been  made 
at  least  by  Philip  and  his  daughter  in  Caesarea  to 
encourage  him,  nor  of  the  opportunities  which  he  may 
have  found  to  make  known  his  Gospel  even  in  such 
unhappy  circumstances. ^6 

Thus  ended  Paul's  hope  of  winning  his  own  people  to 
Christ  and  of  bringing  about  fellowship  betw^een  Jewish 
and  Gentile  Christians.  In  Jerusalem  he  had,  indeed, 
put  himself  ''  under  bondage  to  all  "  that  he  "  might 
gain  the  more."  "  To  the  Jews  "  he  had  "  become  as 
a  Jew  "  though  he  was  not  himself  "  under  the  law," 
hoping  that  he  might  "  by  all  means  save  some."^?  But 
how  terribly  disappointing  the  result  of  his  mission  to 
his  people  must  have  been  we  can  form  sonde  idea  by 
remembering  with  what  high  hopes  he  had  made  the 
collection  for  the  Saints  in  Jerusalem's  and  the  hope  of 

85  Jos.  "  Ant.,"  XX.  8,  and  Tac.  "  Annals,"  XII.  54,  speak  of 
the  base  character  of  Felix  and  Drusilla.  She  had  deserted 
her  husband  to  live  with  Felix.  The  group  of  j\ISS.  known  as 
the  "  Western  Text  "  says  that  it  was  to  satisfy  Drusilla's 
curiosity  that  Felix  kept  Paul  in  prison. 

8®  Acts  xxiv.  23-26.  .  It  would  be  interesting  to  know  how  Paul 
was  supplied  with  money  during  these  years,  when  he  could  not 
work  at  tent-making.  How  did  he  pay  for  the  men  who  had 
taken  the  Nazarite  vow  in  Jerusalem  ?  Why  did  Felix  think 
that  he  might  obtain  a  bribe  from  him  ?  Ramsay  thinks  that 
Paul  had  probably  received  some  money  from  his  father's  estate 
by  this  time,  but  there  is  no  evidence  on  this  point. 

8'  I  Cor.  ix.  19-23.  The  passage  evidently  indicates  that  this 
was  the  principle  upon  which  Paul  acted  throughout  his  ministry 
not  one  that  w^as  adopted  in  Jerusalem.  He  did  not  wish  a 
non-essential  like  the  Law  to  shut  people  out  from  the  Gospel. 

88  See  pp.   139,  200. 


2  20  THK    LIFI-:    AND    MINISTKY   OF    PAUL 

the  salvation  of  his  people  expressed  in  Ivomans.^s  Now 
he  knew  that,  like  his  Master,  he  and  his  Gospel  had 
been  rejected  by  the  cit\-^^  he  had  loved  from  boyhood. 
Since  we  have  no  reference  to  this  period  of  im- 
prisonment in  any  of  Paul's  letters,  we  cannot  know  how 
he  reasoned  within  his  spirit  concerning  the  fact  that 
God  had  led  him  to  Jerusalem  and  that  his  mission  had, 
nevertheless,  apparently  failed,  but  we  know  that  Paul's 
spirit  was  not  the  kind  that  takes  its  chief  evidence  from 
outer  circumstances.  He  could  be  "  sorrowful  yet 
always  rejoicing, "^^  because  he  knew  that  his  Gospel 
would  triumph  even  if  not  in  the  way  or  time  he  had 
hoped.  One  reason  that  his  courage  did  not  fail  in  times 
of  persecution  was  that  he  was  conscious  of  the  presence 
and  help  of  God.     Luke  says  that, 

"  The  Lord  stood  by  him  and  said,  Be  of  good  cheer. "^^ 
No  doubt  Paul  realized  now  the  strengthening  of  God 
such  as  he  knew  on  another  occasion  when  God  said  to 
him,93 

"  My  grace  is  sufficient  for  thee." 


8*  See  p.  211. 

®"  What  the  attitude  of  James  and  the  other  "  Pillars"  was 
during  Paul's  arrest  and  trial  we  have  no  evi  ience. 

^^  2  Cor.  vi.   lo. 

s2  Acts  xxiii.  II.  Luke  says  that  it  was  on  the  night  of  the 
trial  by  the  Sanhedrin  that  the  Lord  stood  by  Paul,  but  no  doubt 
his  statement  represents  Paul's  consciousness  of  God's  presence 
through  all  these  trying  experiences.  Luke  also  says  that  Paul 
now  had  assurance  that  he  should  testify  in  Rome.  Did  Paul 
make  up  his  mind  as  early  as  this  to  appeal  to  Rome  if  he  could 
reach  there  no  other  way  ?  If  he  did,  it  seems  strange  that  he 
waited  two  years  to  appeal,  unless  during  that  time  he  still 
hoped  to  be  released  and  go  to  Rome  as  a  free  man. 

^^  2  Cor.  xii.  9. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

PAUL  "  MORE  THAN  CONQUEROR  "  AT  ROME. 

After  two  years  the  miserable  misrule  of  Felix  resulted 
in  an  uprising  in  Caesarea^  which  brought  about  his 
recall  by  the  Roman  authorities,  and  the  installation  of 
Festus  as  Procurator.  Three  days  after  arriving  he 
went  to  Jerusalem  and  was  urged  by  the  Jews  to 
bring  Paul  there.  But  Festus  replied  that  Paul  could  be 
tried  only  at  Caesarea  and  that  all  charges  must  be 
brought  against  him  there.  Immediately  upon  return- 
ing to  take  the  administration  of  the  affairs  of  his  new 
office  he  sat  upon  his  judgment  seat  in  the  basilica  of 
justice^  and  called  Paul  before  him.  The  Jews,  also, 
were  there  with  their  "  man}^  and  grievous  charges." 

^  Jos.  "  Ant."  XX.,  viii.  9.  The  date  of  the  recall  of  Felix  is 
uncertain.  We  know  from  the  above  passage  in  Josephus  that 
after  his  recall  he  was  saved  from  death  at  the  hands  of  Nero  by 
the  inter\^ention  of  his  brother,  Pallas.  But  this  favourite  of 
Nero's  fell  from  favour  in  the  year  55  a.d.,  as  Tacitus,  "  Annals," 
XIII.  23  states.  If  there  were  no  other  data,  we  could  be  quite 
sure,  therefore,  that  Felix  was  recalled  by  the  year  55  a.d. 
But  unfortunately  there  is  another  passage  which  makes  it 
possible  that  Pallas  was  restored  to  favour  again,  in  which  case 
lie  might  have  helped  Felix  later.  This  is  in  Tacitus'  "  Annals," 
XIII.  23,  which  tells  of  the  trial  of  Pallas  by  another  scoundrel, 
Paetus,  who  managed  to  prove  him  innocent.  Tacitus  remarks, 
"  But  the  proved  innocence  of  Pallas  did  not  please  men  so  much 
as  his  arrogance  offended  them."  Does  this  mean  that  Pallas 
was  restored  to  the  favour  of  Nero  or  not  ?  The  uncertainty  of 
the  answer  to  this  question  makes  it  impossible  to  secure  a 
fixed  date  here. 

^  It  is  interesting  to  see  the  ruins  of  these  Roman  basilicas, 
which  are  scattered  over  the  old  Roman  Empire.  They  are 
rectangular  buildings  \vith  a  double  row  of  colonnades,  and  open 
to  the  air  all  round  except   the   end,  with   a   platform  for  the 


222  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTKY   OF    PAUL 

Although  an  honourable  man,  Festus  seems  to  have 
wished  to  conciliate  the  Jews  and  said  to  Paul, 

"  Wilt  thou  go  up  to  Jerusalem  and  there  be  judged 
of  these  things  before  me  ?  " 

This,  Paul  knew,  would  be  only  to  court  violent 
death,  and  the  vacillating  weakness  of  Festus.  together 
with  his  long  postponed  purpose  of  going  to  Rome, 
determined  him  to  use  the  power  of  appeal  which 
his  Roman  citizenship  gave  him  and  he  replied, 

"  I  appeal  unto  Caesar." 

Although  probably  astonished  at  this  turn  in  affairs, 
Festus  could  only  reply, 

"  Thou  hast  appealed  unto  Caesar  ;  unto  Caesar  thou 
Shalt  go. "3 

Xo  Roman  official  had  the  right  to  deny  the  appeal 
to  Caesar  and  Paul  had  probably  made  up  his  mind  to 
see  Rome  in  this  way  if  there  seemed  little  hope  of  his 
going  as  a  free  man. 

While  preparations  were  being  made  to  send  Paul  to 
Rome  it  happened  that  King  Agrippa  of  Judaea  came  to 
visit  the  new  Procurator.  Hearing  of  Paul's  case,  he 
expressed  a  desire  to  hear  him,  and  Festus  determined 
to  grant  his  request,  hoping  thus  to  get  more  light  con- 
cerning the  statement  of  the  case  which  he  should  make 
to  Xero  the  Emperor.* 

It  was  in  no  sense  an  official  trial  which  was  held  "  on 
the  morrow,"  for  Paul  could  now  be  tried  only  at  the 
court  of  Caesar.  Xevertheless  it  seems  to  have  been 
"  with  great  pomp  "  and  ceremony  that  the  affair  was 
conducted  for  the  honour  of  Agrippa,  who  seems  to  have 
been  invited  to  preside.  Permitted  to  speak,  Paul  took 
the  opportunity  to  make  an  impassioned  defence  of 
his  Gospel,  showing  that  it  originated  in  a  "  heavenly 
vision  "  to  which  being  obedient,  he  was  changed  from 

judgment  seat.  Sometimes  there  is  a  roof  over  the  whole, 
and  sometimes  only  over  the  judgment  seat  and  around  the 
colonnade.     Some  early  churches  were  built  on  this  plan. 

3    Acts    XXV.     I- 12. 

*  Acts  XXV.   13-22. 


PAUL  "  MORE  THAN  CONQUEROR   AT  ROME   223 

a  bigoted  Pharisee  to  a  Cliristian  Apostle.  So  stirred 
was  Festus  that  he  cried  out, 

"  Paul,  thou  art  mad;  thy  much  learning  doth  turn 
thee  to  madness." 

To  this  Paul  replied  : 

"  I  am  not  mad,  most  excellent  Festus  ;  but  speak 
words  of  truth  and  soberness." 

When  Paul  attempted  to  get  Agrippa  to  express 
himself  favourably  toward  the  Gospel,  Agrippa  said, 

"  With  but  little  persuasion  thou  wouldst  fain  make 
me  a  Christian. "^ 

To  this  Paul  replied, 

"  I  would  to  God,  that  whether  with  little  or  with 
much,  not  thou  only,  but  also  all  that  hear  me  this 
day  might  become  such  as  I  am,  except  these  bonds." 

The  whole  scene  is  depicted  in  a  masterly  way  by  Luke, 
who  brings  it  to  a  close  by  the  statement  of  Agrippa 
that  Paul  might  have  been  set  at  liberty  if  he  had  not 
appealed  to  Caesar^.  Luke  then  immediately  begins  the 
account  of  the  journey  to  Rome  using  the  pronoun  "  we." 
When  did  Luke  arrive  in  Caesarea  ?  Could  he  possibly  have 
been  there  when  Agrippa  came  ?  Could  he  have  been 
allowed  to  accompany  Paul  to  the  interview  and  thus 
have  heard  his  speech  ?7  At  any  rate,  he  proceeds^at 
once^to  relate  that  Paul  and  other  prisoners  were  put 
into  the  care  of  Julius,  a  centurion  of  the  Augustan  band^ 
and  that, 

^  Note  that  Acts  xxvi.  28  is  wrongly  translated  in  the 
Authorized  Version,  to  mean  that  Agrippa  was  almost  persuaded 
to  become  a  Christian.  However,  the  context  still  implies  that 
Agrippa  was  deeply  impressed  by  Paul. 

^  Acts  XXV.  13-xxvi.  32.  ;    Acts  xxvii.  i. 

'  The  chief  objection  to  this  supposition  is  that  Luke  would 
have  used  the  "  we  "  early  if  he  had  arrived  earlier.  However, 
the  whole  narrative  is  told  from  the  point  of  view  of  Festus  and 
Agrippa,  rather  than  of  Paul,  andch.  xxv.  23,  is  the  only  place  that 
"  we  "  might  possibly  have  been  used  if  Luke  were  present. 

8  Exactly  what  is  meant  by  one  of  the  "  Augustan  band  "  is 
uncertain.  Ramsay,  following  Mommsen,  thinks  that  Julius 
was  one  of  the  people  sent  out  to  perform  various  sorts  of  services 


224  TIIJ-:    Lll'E   AND   MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

IVc   ])ut    to    sea,    Aristaichns^,    a   Macedonian    of 
Thessalonica  being  with  w.s.''^^ 

The  account  of  the  voyage  is  graphically  told.  A 
ship  from  AdrainN'ttium  on  the  coast  of  Mj^sia  in  Asia 
Minor  was  taken,  although  it  could  take  them  only 
part  way.  On  the  first  day  the  ship  touched  at  Sidon, 
and  here  Paul  was  allowed  to  go  and  see  friends.  Prob- 
ably they  were  brethren  who  had  visited  him  in 
C?esarea.  With  what  tender  care  they  would  now 
"  refresh  "11  him  as  he  went  to  face  other  trials  and 
prisons  !  Sailing  north  to  find  shelter  behind  Cyprus 
from  the  strong  winds,  passing  almost  in  sight  of  Tarsus, 
they  came  to  Myra.12  There  the  centurion  found  an 
Alexandrian  ship  bound  for  Rome  carrying  grain,  and 
took  passage  for  his  prisoners.  With  difficulty  the  ship 
made  its  way  along  between  Rhodes  and  Cnidus  and 
down  along  the  southern  coast  of  Crete  to  Fair  Havens^^ 


for  the  Emperor,  especially  to  attend  to  food  supplies  for  the 
Empire.  Such  officers  might  easily  conduct  prisoners.  Or  he 
may  have  been  one  of  the  soldiers  kept  for  the  court  service  of  the 
Emperor. 

^  Exactly  in  what  capacity  Luke  and  Aristarchus  went  along 
we  do  not  know.  Luke  possibly  went  as  attending  physician 
(Col.  iv.  14),  though  we  have  no  evidence  of  Paul's  illness  at  this 
time.  Aristarchus  had  been  in  Ephesus  with  Paul  (Acts  xix.  29), 
and  had  journeyed  to  Jerusalem  with  him  (Acts  xx.  4).  Perhaps 
he  passed  as  Paul's  slave.  In  Col.  iv.  10  Paul  calls  him  his 
"  fellow-prisoner." 

1"  Acts  xxvii.  1-2.  Note  that  no  further  information  is  given 
concerning  the  charge  which  Festus  stated  to  Caesar  as  Paul's 
crime. 

11  Acts  xxvii.  3. 

^2  Acts  xxvii.  4,  5.  The  "  Western  Text  "  adds  that  it  took 
fifteen  days  to  reach  Myra.  This  whole  account  shows  what 
the  travelling  conditions  on  the  sea  were  in  those  days  of  sailing 
vessels. 

^3  Acts  xxvii.  6-8.  There  were  no  international  shipping 
arrangements  in  those  days  by  which  one  could  book  passages 
through.  See  Acts  xxvii.  38.  "  Wheat."  Egypt  supplied 
the  grain  to  Rome.  Perhaps  this  ship  had  sailed  to  Myra  first, 
hoping  to  get  a  smoother  passage  than  directly  across  the  sea. 


PAUL  '  MORE  THAN  CONQUEROR   AT  ROME   225 

where  the  ship,  for  some  unknown  reason,  stayed  a  long 
time. 

It  was  late  in  the  autumn,  as  the  mention  of  the  Day 
of  Atonement  "  Feast  "  shows.-  Shipping  had  to  cease 
during  the  winter  in  those  days  and  Paul  advised  the 
master  of  the  ship  to  spend  the  winter  where  they  were. 
A  council  was  held  in  which  the  majority  voted  against 
Paul's  advice  and  in  favour  of  trying  to  reach  Phoenix 
because  it  was  a  better  harbour.^*  When  one  day  the 
"south  wind  blew  softly"  they  started  to  creep 
along  the  coast  to  Phoenix,  but  soon  the  tempestuous 
north  wind  caught  them  and  carried  them  to  the  little 
island  of  Cauda.  Here  they  girded  up  the  ship  with 
ropes  and  chains  to  make  it  more  able  to  stand  the  heavy 
sea  and  then,  arranging  their  "gear"  so  that  they  would 
not  be  driven  upon  the  sands  of  Syrtis  on  the  African 
coast  they  faced  the  gale.  Soon  they  were  compelled 
to  throw  part  of  their  cargo  overboard  and  then  the 
ship's  furniture. 15 

When  the  storm  had  lasted  for  days  and  utter  despair 
had  settled  upon  passengers  and  crew,  Paul's  strength 
of  spirit  manifested  itself  in  the  words  of  cheer  he 
spoke  16  and  in  the  management  of  affairs  which  he 
took  upon  himself.  When  the  sailors,  by  sounding, 
decided  they  were  nearing  a  shore  and  attempted  to 
flee  in  a  little  boat,  Paul  warned  the  soldiers,  who 
cut  the  ropes  of  the  already  lowered  boat  just  in  time 
to  keep  the  sailors  aboard.  Going  about  with  encourag- 
ing words,  Paul  succeeded  in  getting  people  to  take 
food.     "  In  the  presence  of  all  he  gave  thanks  to  God  " 

1*  Acts  xxvii.  9-12.  The  account  of  this  council  is  most 
interesting.     How  many  peqple  were  present  ? 

1^  Acts  xxvii.  13-19.  The  text  is  somewhat  uncertain,  but 
perhaps  they  also  took  on  board  at  Cauda  a  little  boat  they  had 
been  towing.     (R.V.  reads  Cauda  instead  of  Clauda.) 

^^  Luke  says  that  Paul  had  a  prophetic  vision  by  which  he 
knew  the  fate  of  the  ship  and  the  safety  of  the  people.  Again 
we  must  remember  the  predilection  for  visions  which  marks  the 
whole  of  Luke's  book,  but  the  account  certainly  shows  that  Paul 
did  introduce  good  cheer  and  hope  into  the  ship. 


226  TJrE    LIFF    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

and  they  rose  up  with  good  cheer,  and  threw  out  the 
"  wlieat  "  to  further  Hghten  the  ship.  With  what 
longing  they  all  "  wished  for  the  day  !  "  When  at  last 
light  dawned  they  beheld  a  land  that  they  knew  not 
but  determined  to  try  to  reach.  The}^  were  caught, 
however,  by  a  current  "  where  two  seas  met  "  and 
driven  upon  the  beach.  The  centurion  told  all  to  save 
themselves  the  best  way  they  could.  Upon  planks  and 
articles  from  the  ship  they  all  succeeded  in  getting 
themselves  through  the  rough  water  to  the  shore. i7 

It  was  the  island  of  Melita,  as  they  soon  discovered, 
upon  which  they  had  been  cast,  and  the  inhabitants 
built  a  fire  and  treated  them  with  kindness,  because  of 
the  rain  and  cold.  When  Paul  had  gathered  a  bundle 
of  sticks  and  laid  them  on  the  fire,  a  viper  came  out  and 
"  fastened  on  his  hand."  He  shook  it  off  into  the  fire, 
and  the  superstitious  natives  expected  to  see  him 
suddenly  die,  thinking  he  must  be  a  murderer  whom 
the  gods  were  avenging.  But  when  nothing  happened 
they  decided  to  he  must  be  a  god.^® 

The  Roman  Governor  of  the  island  was  Publius, 
who,  hearing  of  the  shipwreck,  invited  at  least  part  of 
the  company  to  his  house  and  entertained  them  for 
three  days.  Paul  was  among  the  number  who  went 
and  was  able  to  help  the  sick  father  of  Publius  as 
well  as  others  in  the  island.  Publius  seems  to  have 
remained  friendly  during  the  three  months  they  were 
on  the  island,  and  when,  finding  another  Alexandrian 
ship  named  The  Twin  Brothers  bound  for  Rome,  the 
centurion  took  his  prisoners  on  board,  Publius  supplied 

^■^  Acts  xxvii.  20-44.  For  more  detailed  study  of  the  voyage 
see  Ramsay's  "  St.  Paul  the  Traveller  and  Roman  Citizen," 
ch.  XIV.,  also  Smith's  "  Voyage  and  Shipwreck  of  St.  Paul." 

^^  Acts  xxviii.  1-6.  Although  the  people  of  Malta  (Melita) 
were  "barbarians,"  that  is,  not  Greeks,  they  were  not  savages. 
They  were  probably  a  branch  of  the  Phoenician  race  and  their 
early  remains  are  somewhat  like  those  of  Stonehenge  in  England. 
In  Paul's  day  considerable  Roman  civilization  had  been  intro- 
duced. 


PAUL   MORE  THAN  CONQUEROR   AT  ROME   227 

their  needs  for  the  voyage. i^  Arriving  at  Syracuse, 
a  centre  of  ancient  Greek  civihzation  and  the  chief 
city  in  Sicily,  they  remained  three  days  and  thence 
went  on  to  Rhegium.  Passing  through  the  narrow 
strait  of  Messina,  with  a  good  south  wind  at  their  back, 
it  could  not  have  been  late  in  the  day  when  they  came 
in  sight  of  the  splendid  headlands  that  form  the  gateway 
to  the  Bay  of  Naples,  and  once  inside  the  harbour  a  few 
hours  would  bring  them  to  the  quay  of  Puteoli.^o  This 
ancient  port  still  bears  some  traces  of  the  days  when  the 
Emperor  Nero  and  rich  Romans  came  there  for  pleasure. 
To  the  west  of  Puteoli  the  coast  was  lined  with  marble 
palaces  and  theatres,  and  temples  were  no  doubt  plen- 
tiful.21  But  here  also  was  a  group  of  Christians,  for 
Paul  and  his  companions  '*  found  brethren, "22  and  were 
allowed  by  the  centurion^s  to  remain  with  them  a  week. 
Fellowship  with  brethren  must  have  been  most  grateful 
to  Paul  and  his  friends  after  their  difficult  winter. 
Leaving  Puteoli  the  party  set  out  upon  the  Appian 

^^  Acts  xxviii.  7-1 1.  One  wonders  if  Luke  the  Physician  did 
not  also  help  some  of  the  sick. 

^  Acts  xxviii.  12,  13.  Ostia  was  nearer  Rome  but  difficult 
to  keep  open,  because  of  the  sediment  carried  down  by  the 
Tiber.  So  Puteoli  was  the  harbour  of  Rome,  as  Naples  is  to-day. 
Until  a  few  years  ago  parts  of  the  ancient  quay  at  which  Paul's 
ship  may  have  drawn  up  were  to  be  seen.  But  one  cannot  be 
sure  that  the  coast-line  to  the  west  of  Puteoli,  now  called  Pozzuoli 
is  the  same  as  in  Paul's  day,  for  in  the  middle  ages  volcanic  action 
heaved  up  a  mountain  in  a  night,  and  probably  changed  the 
coast  considerably. 

21  There  are  now  the  ruins  of  a  great  amphitheatre  in  Pozzuoli. 
There  is  also  part  of  a  temple  of  Augustus  and  a  temple  to 
Serapis.  This  last  has  been  lowered  by  volcanic  action  into  the 
sea,  and  raised  again,  but  its  columns  still  stand  in  sea-water. 

^^  Acts  xxviii.  14.  It  is  interesting  that  there  should  have 
been  Christians  in  Puteoli,  especially  as  the  extensive  excavation 
of  Pompeii  to  the  east  has  as  yet  turned  up  no  evidence  of 
Christians  there. 

2^  The  whole  account  seems  to  indicate  that  Julius  had  grown 
to  have  great  respect  for  his  prisoner.  He  may  ha.ve  taken 
considerable  trouble  to  make  it  possible  for  Paul  to  stay  in 
Puteoli  for  a  week. 


228  TIIK    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

Way,  called  "  the  queen  of  long  roads."^*  This  took 
them  up  through  Capua  and  then  down  to  the  coast 
through  a  marshy  region  to  the  Market  of  Appius, 
which  Luke  mentions  because  their  hearts  were  rejoiced 
by  the  coming  of  "  brethren  "  from  Rome.  How  had 
the  brethren  at  Rome  learned  that  Paul  was  on  the 
way  ?  A  brother  from  Puteoli  must  have  set  out  for 
Rome  as  soon  as  Paul  arrived,  in  order  for  the  brethren 
to  travel  back  on  the  Appian  Way  forty-three  miles 
to  the  Market  of  Appius.  Or  perhaps  the  brethren  of 
Puteoli  sent  a  letter  by  messenger.  At  any  rate,  both 
at  the  Market  of  Appius  and  the  Three  Taverns 
brethren  appeared. 

"  Whom  when  Paul  saw  he  thanked  God  and  took 
courage. "25 

On  the  Appian  Way  the  travellers  passed  many  beau- 
tiful tombs,  the  ruins  of  some  of  which  can  still  be  seen.^^ 
On  this  road  one  can  in  some  places  walk  over  the  old 
pavement  belonging  to  the  days  when  Paul  journeyed 
to  Rome.  One  can  imagine  these  ruined  tombs,  temples 
and  villas  standing  in  all  their  magnificence.  And  over 
to  the  right  one  can  see  some  of  the  arches  of  the  Claudian 
aqueduct  that  in  Paul's  day  carried  water  from  the 
Alban  hills  to  Rome,  also  part  of  a  yet  older  aqueduct 
still  performing  its  gracious  service. ^7  Wliat  were 
Paul's  thoughts  as  he  travelled  in  chains  along  the 
Appian  Way  into  the  capitol  cit}'  which  he  had  for  so 
"  many  years  "28  desired  to  see  ? 

2*  A  little  of  the  Appian  Way  can  still  be  seen  at  Puteoli. 

25  Acts  xviii.  15.  The  exact  site  of  the  Three  Taverns  is 
uncertain. 

2^  It  was  the  Roman  custom  to  bury  outside  the  city,  often  along 
the  public  ways.  Other  roads  around  Rome  were  used  as  burial 
places,  but  on  the  Appian  wa}^  were  many  of  the  finest  tombs. 
In  Pompeii  the  beginning  of  a  street  of  tombs  has  been 
excavated. 

2^  The  Aqueduct  of  Claudius  was  completed  in  52  a.d.  The 
Aqueduct  of  iMarcia,  dating  from  146  B.C.,  still  brings  water  from 
the  Sabine  hills  to  the  fountain  in  the  "Piazza  delle  Terme," 
neir  the  station. 

^  Romans  xv.  23. 


PAUL  "  MORE  THAN  CONQUEROR    AT  ROME   229 

Entering  the  city^^  by  whatever  route  he  was  taken 
he  could  not  fail  to  see  the  Palatine  Hill  with  its  temples 
and  palaces  of  the  Caesars,  and  possibly  he  would  pass 
through  the  old  Roman  Forum  on  his  way  to  the  Prae- 
torian Guard^o  of  Nero.  But  Nero's  chief  business  in  life 
was  enjoyment,  and  prisoners  must  wait  his  pleasure. 
For  two  years  Paul  waited  for  his  trial  but  fortunately 
was  given  the  freedom  accorded  to  Roman  citizens, 
and  allowed  to  live  in  his  own  hired  house  guarded  by  a 
Roman  soldier. ^i  Here  Paul  preached  his  gospel, 
receiving  the  Jews,  who  took  some  interest  in  him  at 
first,  but  soon  abandoned  him,  and  many  others  who 
found  this  prisoner  of  vital  interest  to  them. 

Fortunately  we  have  some  of  Paul's  letters  written 
during  his  imprisonment  in  Rome  which  bring  us  once 
more  in  direct  touch  with  Paul's  own  spirit  and  introduce 
us  to  some  of  his  friends.  One  of  these  friends  was 
Onesimus  whom  Paul  calls 

"  My  child,  whom  I  have  begotten  in  my  bonds. "^^ 

Onesimus  was  a  slave  belonging  to  Philemon,  a 
Christian  of  Colossse.^^  In  this  household  Onesimus  had, 
no  doubt,  often  heard  of  Paul  and  perhaps  even  attended 
some  of  the  meetings  of  Christian  brethren  held  there. ^^ 
Then  some  temptation  came  to  him,  and  he  ran  away, 


29  The  present  gate  by  which  one  enters  the  city  from  the  Appian 
Way  was  not  standing  in  Paul's  day.  He  Avould  have  entered 
by  the  "  Porta  Capaena,"  built  into  the  old  Servian  wall. 

-"  Phil.  i.  13.  The  word  which  Paul  uses  is  "  Praetorium," 
which  might  possibly  mean  the  judgment  hall,  but  more  likely 
refers  to  the  camp  of  the  Praetorian  soldiers.      See  p.  237. 

^^  Actsxxviii.  16,  30.  Tacitus'  "  Annals,"  VI.  3,  gives  another 
instance  :  "So  Junius  Gallio,  brother  of  Seneca,  was  kept  under 
guard  in  the  houseof  a  magistrate."  See  chap.  XV.,  pp.  157,  158. 
Gallio  seems  to  have  met  imprisonment,  and,  later,  death  at  the 
hands  of  Nero,  as  Paul  did. 

2-  Philemon  10.  The  name  Onesimus  means  Helpful  or 
Profitable,  and  was  a  common  name  for  a  slave. 

^^  Philemon  16. 

^^  Philemon  2. 


230  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

possibly  even  stealing  some  of  his  master's  money. 3-'» 
In  Rome  he  heard  that  his  master's  friend,  Paul,  was  in 
prison,  and  went  to  see  him,  and  through  Paul's  friend- 
ship became  himself  one  of  the  brethren.  Paul  seems 
to  have  given  unstinted  love  to  Onesimus,  calling  him 

"  My  verv  heart,  whom  I  would  fain  have  kept  with 
me."36 

Nevertheless  he  feels  that  it  is  right  for  Onesimus 
to  go  back  to  his  master  to  prove  himself  "  profitable  " 
now  that  he  is  not  only  a  slave,  but  a  brother.  He, 
therefore,  writes  the  letter  addressed  to  Philemon  and 
his  wife  Apphia  and  Afchippus,  probably  their  son,^^ 
expressing  his  "joy  and  comfort  "  in  the  love  of  Phile- 
mon through  whom  "  the  hearts  of  the  saints  have  been 
refreshed,"  and  beseeching  him  to  receive  Onesimus 
not  simply  as  a  returned  servant  but  as  a  "  brother 
beloved."38 

Paul  bespeaks  for  Onesimus  the  fellowship  which 
Philemon  feels  for  himself. 

"If,  then,  thou  countest  me  a  partner,  receive  him  as 
myself." 

Indeed,  Paul  promises  to  pay  whatever  amount 
Philemon  chooses  to  charge  Onesimus  for  the  loss  he 
has  incurred  through  him,  and  calls  his  attention  to  the 
fact  that  he  is  writing  with  his  own  hand  and  can  be 
held   legally   responsible   for   the   debt.     However,  he 

^^  Philemon  ii,  i8,  19.  Some  think  that  Onesimus  would 
hardly  have  gone  so  far  as  Rome,  and,  therefore,  think  that 
this  letter  was  written  when  Paul  was  in  prison  in  Ephesus. 
See  ch.  XVI.,  p.  171.  But  it  was  easy  to  travel  to  Rome  since 
it  was  the  centre  of  the  Empire  and  was  a  good  place  for  run- 
aways to  hide  in. 

3^  Philemon   12. 

^"^  Archippus  is  referred  to  again  in  Col.  iv.  17,  as  one  with  a 
gift  of  ministr3\  In  Philemon  2  Paul  calls  him  "  our  fellow- 
soldier."  Perhaps  he  was  the  young  son  of  Philemon  and  Apphia 
who  was  becoming  helpful  in  the  meetings  of  the  brotherhood 
at  Colossse. 

^^  Philemon  1-16.  Note  the  play  on  the  name  Onesimus  ; 
now  he  can  be  truly  profitable. 


PAUL   MORE  THAN  CONQUEROR   AT  ROME   23 1 

suggests,  without  urging  it,  that  Philemon  can  afford 
to  forgive  this  debt  at  Paul's  request  since  he  owes  to 
him  his  "  own  self."  Paul  pleads  for  his  friend  Onesimus 
as  though  he  were  pleading  for  himself  : 

"  Yea,  brother,  let  me  have  joy  of  thee  in  the  Lord  ; 
refresh  my  heart  in  Christ. "^^ 

No  wonder  that  Paul's  gospel  flourished  in  prison  and 
out,  if  it  produced  brotherhood  like  this  !  The  Golden 
Rule  needed  no  further  exposition  for  the  simplest 
mind.*^  The  oneness  in  Christ  needed  no  philosophical 
explanation  when  it  was  thus  manifest  in  actual  facts. 
To  how  many  others  of  whom  we  have  no  record  did 
Paul  thus  manifest  his  Christ-like  brotherhood  ?  So 
sure  is  Paul  that  he  can  depend  on  the  brotherhood  of 
Philemon  that  he  requests,  further,  that  he  will  prepare 
a  lodging  for  him  as  he  hopes  he  may  soon  be  set  free.*i 

This  letter  and  Onesimus  himself  Paul  sends  to 
Colossae  in  the  care  of  Tychicus  who  takes  also  a  letter 
to  the  Colossse  church. ^2  There  is  with  him  at  the  time 
another  Colossian,  Epaphras,  who  was  deeply  interested 
in  the  inner  life  of  the  church  there, ^^  and  who  tells  Paul  of 
the  faith  and  love  which  is  daily  increasing  in  the 
Colossian  community*-*  and  also,  perhaps,  of  certain 
dangerous  tendencies.  That  there  are  certain  teachers 
who  may  "  delude  "  "  with  persaasiveness  of  speech  " 
is  shown  by  the  warning  against  their  "  philosophy."*^ 

^^  Philemon  17-20.  When  Philemon  met  Paul  and  became  a 
brother  through  him,  we  do  not  know.  Perhaps  it  was  while 
he  was  at  Ephesus  that  Philemon  came  and  made  his  acquaintance. 

'^^  Paul  never  quotes  the  Golden  Rule,  but  certainly  acts 
upon  it.     On  Paul's  attitude  toward  slavery  see  ch.  XVI.,  p.  179. 

^^  Philemon  21,  22.  It  is  interesting  that  Paul  should  think 
of  going  to  Colossae  upon  his  release,  though  he  had  never  been 
there  before. 

*^  Col.  i.  7  and  iv.  7-9. 

**  Col.  iv.   12,    13  ;    Philemon  23. 

^*  Col.   3.   8. 

*^  Col.  ii.  4,  8.  The  exact  nature  of  this  dangerous  teaching 
in     Colossae     is     uncertain.      It     seems    to     have     emphasized 


232  THF    I.IFK    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

But  Paul  does  not  definitely  attack  this  false  philo- 
sophy in  his  letter  to  tie  Colossians,  instead,  he  points 
out  the  sufficiency  of  the  Gospel.  Those  who  wish 
wisdom  and  knowledge  certainly  may  find  it  in, 

"  Christ,  in  whom  are  all  the  treasures  of  wisdom 
and  knowledge  hidden. "^^ 

Those  who  are  interested  in  the  ranks  of  principalities 
and  powers  should  know  that  the  power  and  glory  of  a 
kingdom  belong  to  Christ. -^^  He  is  the  first  of  all  created 
powers,  indeed, 

"  In  him  were  all  things  created  .  .  .  and 
in  him  all  things  consist  .  .  .  who  is  the  image 
of  the  invisible  God.  ...  In  him  dwelleth  all  the 
fulness  of  the  Godhead  bodily  .  .  .  who  is  the  head 
of  all  principality  and  power."48 

It  is  the  gospel  of  such  a  transcendent  one  of  which 
Paul  is  made  a  minister.  There  is  no  reason  why  any 
should  be  led  astray  to  the  "  worshipping  of  angels, "^^ 
since  Christ  is  supreme  over  all,  "  seated  on  the  right 
hand  of  God.''^^ 


"  knowledge,"  wisdom  and  mysteries,  and  to  have  been 
interested  in  principalities  and  powers,  for  these  are  referred  to 
by  Paul. 

*®  Col.  i.  9,    10,   and  ii.   3. 

*'  Col.  i.   11-14. 

*^  Col.  i.  15-23  and  ii.  9,  10.  The  word  "  image  '"  means 
actually  representation  of  God,  but  it  does  not  imply  complete 
representation,  that  is,  does  not  imply  equality  with  God. 
Paul  uses  the  same  word  of  the  relation  of  Christians  to  Christ. 
See  I  Cor.  xv.  49  ;  Rom.  viii.  29  ;  2  Cor.  iii.  18,  and  Col.  iii.  10. 
Neither  does  the  "  fulaess  of  the  Godhead  "  mean  that  Christ 
is  in  all  respects  like  God,  but,  rather,  that  he  partakes  of  the 
essential  substance  of  God.  Fulness  was  a  common  philosophical 
word  of  the  time  indicating  essential  nature.  Also  the  Greek 
word  used  here  for  Godhead  means  0/  the  divine  nature  rather 
than  possessing  all  the  divine  qualities. 

45  Col.  ii.   18. 

'^^  Col.  iii.   I. 


PAUL    MORE  THAN  CONQUEROR   AT  ROME   233 

This  philosophy  of  Paul's^i  comes  out  of  his  original 
conception  of  Jesus  as  a  triumphant  spirit,  but  he  had 
earlier  refused  to  preach  philosoph}^  Now  the  special 
conditions  in  Colossse  and  perhaps  the  comparatively 
quiet  life  that  he  is  compelled  to  live  in  Rome  cause 
him  to  state  more  fully  his  conception  of  the  relationship 
of  Christ  to  God  and  to  the  world.  Evidently  it  was 
not  necessary  to  accept  Paul's  philosophy  in  order  to 
accept  Paul's  Gospel,  since  he  emphasized  it  so  little 
during  his  active  ministry.  The  supremacy  of  the 
Spirit  of  Christ  in  the  life  and  its  unity  with  the  Spirit 
of  God  was,  indeed,  the  heart  of  Paul's  Gospel  from  the 
first,  but  this  is  not  necessarily  bound  up  with  an  idea  of 
Christ  as  Creator  of  the  world  nor  with  a  definition  of  his 
exact  relationship  with  his  Father.  To  persuade  people 
to  live  in  the  Spirit  of  Christ,  which  was  self-evidently 
the  Divine  Spirit,  was  the  essence  of  Paul's  ministry, 
and  was  justified  by  its  results  in  character.  But  upon 
the  philosophy  or  theology  underlying  this  practical 
spiritual  life  Paul  laid  comparatively  little  emphasis. 
Since  true  spiritual  life  was  the  essence  of  Paul's  Gospel, 
both  slave  and  philosopher  could  live  the  Gospel 
life. 

The  false  teachers  of  CoIosssk  probably  also  offered  a 
"  mystery  "  for  Paul  Jays  much  emphasis  upon  the 
mystery  of  which  he  was  made  minister,  and  defines 
it  more  fully  than  he  has  elsewhere  in  these  words, 

"  God  was  pleased  to  make  known  what  is  the  riches 
of  the  glory  of  this  mystery  among  the  Gentiles  which  is 
Christ  in  you,  the  hope  of  glory." 

This  is  the  inner  power  which  God  in  His  plans  for  the 
ages  has,  at  last,  been  able  to  make  known  to  the  saints, 

^^  As  a  matter  of  fact  we  have  here  the  philosophy  of  the  Logos 
or  Word,  which  we  find  further  developed  in  the  prologue  of 
the  Gospel  of  John.  Philo  of  Alexandria  had  introduced  this 
Greek  type  of  thought  to  Jewish  thinkers.  Philo  calls  the 
Logos  the  "  Image  "  of  God  (de  Mund,  Op.  8,  etc.),  and  the 
First-born  (de  Cherub,  16,  etc.),  and  says  that  through  the  Logos 
God  created  the  world  (Le:^.  Allegor.  31,  etc.). 


234  THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL. 

a  power  wliich  is  able  to  present  "  every  man  perfect  in 
Christ,""'-  that  is,  to  produce  true  spiritual  life. 

Those  who  have  been  buried  with  Christ  and  raised 
with  him  ought  to  give  no  heed  to  teachers  who  demand 
such  outward  rites  as  circumcision,  who  lay  down  fixed 
rules  about  food  and  drink,  and  teach  that  holiness  is 
promoted  by  "  severitx'  to  the  body,"^^  for  those  who 
know  the  mystery  of  Christ  naturally  "  seek  the  things 
that  are  above,"  for  their  true  "  life  is  hid  with  Christ 
in  God."^-*  Those  who  have  this  life  of  Christ  within, 
that  is,  those  who  possess, 

"  A  heart  of  compassion,  kindness,  humility,  meekness, 
long-suffering     .     .     .     love," 

will  not  need  ceremonies  and  rules  to  rid  themselves 
of  "  passion,  evil  desire  and  covetousness,"  for  they 
have  "  put  off  the  old  man  with  his  doings  "  and  ha\'e 
the  impulses  of  "  the  new  man."^^ 

"  Let  the  peace  of  Christ  rule  in  your  hearts."  "  Let 
the  word  of  Christ  dwell  in  you  richly  in  all  wisdom." 

It  is  to  this  rich  inner  life  that  Paul  looks  for  the 
right  arrangements  of  all  social  relationships,^^  indeed, 
of  ever}^  phrase  of  the  development  of  life.  This  is  the 
"  mystery  of  Christ  "  which  has  been  the  centre  of  all 
of  Paul's  ministry,  and  for  which  he  considers  that  he 
is  now  in  bondage.  He  is  longing  for  a  greater  oppor- 
tunity while  in  bonds  in  the  great  Roman  capitol  to 
make  known  this  m^'stery.  When  most  people  would 
have  considered  the  circumstances  too  difficult  to  hope 
to  accomplish  anything,  Paul  is  asking  the  Colossians 
to  keep,         * 

^"^  CoL  i.  24-29.     Compare  Eph.  iii.   1-8. 

^^  Col.  ii.  11-23.  This  emphasis  on  circumcision  makes  it 
probable  that  these  false  teachers  of  Colossae  were  Jews.  The 
emphasis  on  asceticism  makes  it  possible  that  they  were  the 
Jewish  Essenes  for  a  description  of  whom,  see  Josephus 
"  Wars,"  II.,  8. 

^*  Col.  iii.    1-4. 

^^  Col.  iii.   5-14. 

^^  Col.  iii.    15-iv.    I. 


PAUL   MORE  THAN  CONQUEROR   AT  ROME   235 

"  Praying  for  us  .  .  .  that  God  may  open  unto 
us  a  door  for  the  word,  to  speak  the  mystery  of  Christ, 
for  which  I  am  also  in  bonds. "^7 

Closely  related  to  the  Colossian  letter  in  thought  and 
feeling  is  the  so-called  letter  to  the  Ephesians.  It  seems 
impossible  to  believe  that  it  was  written  to  Paul's 
friends  at  Ephesus  because  he  seems  to  be  writing  to 
people  of  whom  he  has  only  heard. ^^  Tychicus  seems 
to  be  the  bearer  of  this  letter  as  well  as  the  one  to 
Colossae.  Could  this  be  a  letter  carried  by  Tychicus 
to  some  city  near  Colossae  that  Paul  did  not  know 
personally  ?  This  possibility  is  strengthened  by 
Paul's  statement  in  the  Colossian  letter  that  Epaphras 
had  laboured  much  for  "  them  in  Laodicea,  and  for 
them  in  Hierapolis."59  These  two  cities  are  close 
neighbours  of  Colossae  and  Paul  certainly  sent  a  letter 
to  Laodicea,  for  he  tells  the  Colossians  to  exchange 
letters  with  the  Laodiceans.^o  n  seems  probable,  then, 
that  Tychicus  took  a  letter  which  the  Laodiceans  were 
to  read  and  send  to  Colossae.^i     Paul  seems  to   know 

"  Col.  iv.  2-6. 

^^  Eph.  i.  15,  and  iii.  2-4. 

^^  That  it  was  not  written  especially  to  the  Ephesians  is  also 
made  probable  by  the  fact  that  the  words  "  at  Ephesus,"  in 
Eph.  i.  I,  do  not  occur  in  many  of  the  oldest  manuscripts. 
See  R.V.  margin.     Col.  iv.  13. 

*°  Col.  iv.  16,  17.  The  earliest  catalogue  of  Paul's  epistles, 
the  Canon  of  Marcion,  read  in  i.  i  of  our  Ephesia.ns  the  words 
"  in  Laodicea."  The  fact,  however,  that  some  of  the  MSS.  have 
no  name  of  a  place  suggests  the  possibility  that  our  Ephesians 
was  a  circular  letter,  which  got  the  name  Ephesus  attached  to  it 
because  it  was  read  there  as  well  as  at  other  places.  Perhaps  an 
early  collector  of  Paul's  epistles  found  it  there. 

^^  Whether  this  was  our  letter  of  the  Ephesians  depends  upon 
many  intricate  problems  in  connection  with  that  epistle.  It  is 
a  delicate  and  unsettled  problem  whether  Ephesians  is  Pauline 
or  not.  Such  delicate  problems  have  to  be  faced  as  this  :  Is  the 
definition  of  the  mystery  of  Christ  given  in  Eph.  iii.  5,  6  consistent 
with  that  given  in  Col.  i.  26,  27,  and  ii.  2,  or  not  ?  At  any  rate 
the  letter  adds  little  beyond  Colossians  to  the  knowledge  of 
Paul's  ministry  while  in  Rome,  and  may,  therefore,  not  be 
further  considered  here.  For  an  examination  of  its  relation  to 
Colossians,  see  Moffatt's  "  Introduction  to  the  N.T." 


2^6  THE    LIFK    AM)    MIMSTKY    OF    PAUL 

the  name  of  one  of  the  coinm'niity  in  Laodicea  for  he 
sahites  "  Nymphas  and  the  church  in  their  house. "^2 

The  friends  who  are  with  Paul  as  he  sends  off  Tychicus 
and  Onesimus^s  with  the  letters  to  Philemon  and  the 
Colossians,  and  Laodiceans,  and  perhaps  Ephesians, 
are  his  two  ship  companions,  Luke  and  Aristarchus, 
and  Mark  whom  he  has  forgiven  for  his  earlier  desertion,^* 
and  Jesus  Justus,  Demas,  Epaphras  of  Colossae^^  and 
his  old  friend  Timothy, ^6.  Xo  doubt  this  group  met 
often  in  Paul's  hired  house,  and  probably  some  of  them 
lived  with  him  there. ^7  The}^  must  have  talked  over 
together  the  prospects  of  the  issue  of  Paul's  trial,  and 
the  progress  of  the  Gospel  in  Rome.  Anxious  friends 
from  Paul's  churches  throughout  the  Empire  probably 
joined  the  group  for  short  periods,  coming  to  bring  help 
and  encouragement  to  Paul.  One  such  visitor  was 
Epaphroditus  from  Philippi,  whom  Paul's  old  friends 
had  sent  that  they  might  have  "  fellowship  with  " 
Paul's  "  affliction. ''6^«  They  sent  some  "  things  "  to  Paul 
which  made  him  feel  richly  provided  for,  and  deeply 
grateful. 69  They  had  planned,  also,  that  Epaphroditus 
should  stay  and  minister  to  Paul,  but  instead  he  was 
"  sick  nigh  unto  death  "  in  Rome.  When  he  finally 
recovered  he  so  longed  for  his  friends  at  home  that  Paul 
put  aside  his  ov/n  desire  for  companionship  and  help, 
and  sent  Epaphroditus  home  with  a  letter  to  the  Philip- 
pians  asking  them  not   to   blame  their  messenger  for 

^2  Some  MSS.  read  "  the  church  in  her  house,"  which  would 
mean  that  Nymphas  was  a  woman.  Others  read  "  in  his 
house." 

^'  Col.  iv.  7-9. 

«*  See  ch.  VIII.,  p.  81  and  chap.  XI.,  p.  106. 

^5  Col.  iv.  10-14,  and  Philemon  23,  24.  Nothing  is  known 
of  Jesus  Justus  and  Demas  before  this  reference  . 

^^  Col.  i.   I.  ;    Philemon  i.  i. 

®'  Aristarchus  and  Epaphras  are  referred  to  as  fellow-prisoners, 
Col.  iv.  10  and  Philemon  23. 
^*  Philippians  iv.  14. 
^■^  Phil.  iv.  10-20. 


PAUL   MORE  THAN  CONQUEROR    AT  ROME   237 

returning,  because  he  had  risked  his  Hfe  for  the  "  work 
of  Christ  "  even  though  he  had  not  been  able  to  fully 
carry  out  his  commission. ^o 

This  letter  sent  by  Epaphroditus  to  the  Philippians 
lets  us  see  not  only  Paul's  relation  to  loved  friends  in 
Philippi,  but  his  own  situation  in  Rome.  He  is  anxious 
to  have  his  friends  know  that  the  recent  events  of  his 
life,  which  seemed  so  dangerous  to  him  and  his  Gospel, 
have  actually  "  fallen  out  rather  to  the  progress  of  the 
gospel."  That  Paul  is  a  prisoner  for  the  sake  of  his 
loyalty  to  Christ  has  become  known  "  throughout  the 
whole  praetorian  guard. '"^^  These  praetorian  soldiers 
perhaps  took  turns  in  watching  over  Paul  in  his  hired 
house,  and  gradually  many  of  them  came  to  know 
something  of  him  and  his  Gospel.  But  what  a 
commentary  on  the  earnestness  and  power  of  the  man 
is  the  fact  that  these  harsh,  rugged,  Roman  soldiers 
were  impressed  by  his  Gospel  !  Moreover,  news  of  Paul 
and  his  Gospel  spread  in  "  the  rest  '"^^  gf  Rome,  and 
some  of  Caesar's  householcF^  were  numbered  among  the 
brethren.  The  Roman  church,  too,  was  stirred  by 
Paul's  presence  and  "  most  of  the  brethren  "  became 
more  bold  in  their  championship  of  the  Gospel  when  they 

'"  Phil.  ii.  25-30.  Note  that  Epaphroditus  is  not  merely 
longing  for  home  himself,  but  is  troubled  because  he  has  heard 
that  his  home  people  have  heard  that  he  is  sick,  and  knows  that 
they  will  worry  about  him.     See  verse  26. 

'1  The  word  'Praetorium  was  early  used  of  the  general's  tent 
where  difficulties  were  settled — Livy,  Hist.  VII.,  12.  Later  the 
palace  of  a  governor,  since  it  contained  the  judgment  hall,  was 
called  Praetorium,  as  Herod's  palace  in  Csesarea  (Acts  xxiii.  35). 
In  Rome,  however,  there  seems  to  be  no  example  of  the  applica- 
tion of  the  name  to  the  palace  of  the  Csesars  on  the  Palatine. 
It  seems  in  Rome  to  have  been  used,  rather,  of  the  Praetorian 
Guard,  which  was  the  imperial  bodj^-guard.  Tacitus  Hist.  I.  20. 
Its  translation  in  Phil.  i.  13  is,  however,  uncertain,  since  so  little 
evidence  of  its  meaning  in  Rome  at  that  time  is  forthcoming. 

'2  Phil.  i.   12,   13. 

"^^  Phil.  iv.  22.  This  probably  does  not  refer  to  the  immediate 
household  of  Csesar,  but  to  the  many  servants  connected  with 
the  palace  of  Nero. 


238  Tin-:    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

saw  Paul's  eagerness  though  in  "  bonds,"  and  knew  that 
he  was  "  set  for  the  defence  of  the  Gospel,"  unto  death 
if  need  be.  Others,  however,  tried  to  "  raise  up  afflic- 
tion "  for  Paul,  perhaps  thinking  that  a  man  in  prison 
could  not  be  a  minister  of  Christ.  But  Paul  shows  the 
Christ-like  spirit  in  disregarding  their  lack  of  love 
for  him,  and  rejoicing  that  "  Christ  is  proclaimed," 
"  whether  in  pretence  or  in  truth. "7* 

The  sharp  words  of  warning  against  Jews  suggest  that 
Paul  is  suffering  from  their  enmity  in  Rome.  He 
reminds  the  Philippians  that, 

"  We  are  the  circumcision,  who  worship  by  the 
Spirit  of  God."75 

As  Paul  himself  does  not  have  "  confidence  in  the 
flesh  "  neither  should  they,  but, 

"  Count  all  things  to  be  loss  for  the  excellency  of 
the  knowledge  of  Christ  Jesus."76 

"  Even  weeping,"  Paul  warns  against  the  "  enemie^ 
of  the  cross,"  and  tells  the  Philippians  to  be  imitators 
of  him  in  withstanding  them. '7'' 

Nevertheless,  it  is  with  great  humility  that  Paul 
points  to  his  own  attainments  in  Christ-likeness,  for  he  is 
fully  conscious  that  he  is  not  "  perfect."  It  is  rather 
his  continual  pressing  on,  his  eager ''  stretching  forward  " 
toward  the  "  high  calling  of  God  in  Christ  Jesus,"  that 
he  urges  upon  the  "  brethren."  The  true  way  of  life  is  to 
walk  according  to  the  highest  one  has  apprehended 
while  pressing  on  to  the  ideal.  Such,  indeed,  are 
"  perfect  "'^^  if  measured  by  their  ideals. 

'*  PhiL  ii.   14-18. 

'5  Phil.  iii.   2,   3. 

'®  PhiL  iii.  4-9. 

"  PhiL  iii.   17-19. 

'8  PhiL  iii.  12-16.  This  double  use  of  the  word  perfection  is 
found  also  in  Mt.  v.  48.  See  also  i  Cor.  ii.  6.  Since  growth  is 
the  basis  of  life  it  is  possible  at  any  stage  to  be  perfect  for  that 
stage,  though  absolute  perfection  is  3^et  ahead. 


PAUL   MORE  THAN  CONQUEROR   AT  ROME   239 

But  Paul  counsels  the  Philippians  not  only  to  be 
"  perfect,"  but  humble  "  in  lowliness  of  mind  each 
counting  other  better  than  himself ;    not  looking  each 

.  ,  .  to  his  .own  things,  but  .  .  .  also  to  the 
things  of  others."  Those  who  have  this  quality  of  mind 
have  the  mind  of  Christ,  who  showed  his  humility  by 
choosing  to  become  a  servant  to  man,  when  he  might 
have  "  counted  it  a  prize  to  be  on  an  equality  with 
God."79  In  appreciation  of  his  humiliation  even  unto 
death  God  has  highly  exalted  him,  and  those  who 
understand  the  meaning  of  his  life  and  death  may  now 
live  as, 

"  Children  of  God  .  .  .  holding  forth  the  word 
of  life."  To  those  who  thus  embody  the  mind  of  Christ 
Paul  writes, 

"  It  is  God  which  worketh  in  you."^^ 

Such  will  abound  in  love,  and  knowledge,  and  dis- 
cernment ;  they  will  sincerely  approve  the  things  that 
are  excellent,  and  all  the  pure  and  lovely  things  in  God's 
world,  and  the  peace  of  God  will  guard  their  hearts  and 
"  thoughts  in  Christ  Jesus." 

It  is  hard  to  remember  that  this  ideal  of  life  was  set 
forth  by  a  man  in  prison  possibly  facing  death.  But 
there  are  various  sentences  in  the  Philippian  letter  that 
show  that  Paul  was  conscious  that  he  was  facing  a  future 
of  great  uncertainty^  One  moment  he  realizes  that  he 
may  be  called  upon  to  be  "  offered  upon  the  service  and 
sacrifice  "  of  faith,  the  next  he  trusts  that  he  will  soon  be 
free  to  go  to  his  friends. ^i     He  can  scarcely  decide  which 

'^  Phil.  ii.  i-ii.  It  is  a  question  here  whether  verse  6  implies 
that  Jesus  was  on  an  equality  with  God  or  not.  Either  he  was, 
and  voluntarily  gave  it  up,  or  he  was  in  a  position  to  have 
"  snatched  at"  (the  literal  meaning  of  the  verb)  equality  and 
refused  to  do  so.  The  latter  seems  to  be  more  in  accordance  with 
Paul's  thought  of  Jesus  as  the  Son  of  God  obedient  to  his  Father, 
and  subject  to  Him.     See  i  Cor.  xv.  28. 

«"  Phil.  ii.   12-16. 

^^  Compare  Phil.  ii.  17,  18  with  ii.  24.  Also  Phil.  i.  20  with 
i.  25. 


240  THI';    MFi:    and    MrsISTKY   OF    PAUL 

would  be  l)cst,  life  or  death,  if  the  choice  were  his. 
To  "  depart  and  be  with  Christ  "  sometimes  seems 
"  very  far  better,"  yet  when  he  thinks  of  his  friends 
it  seems  "  more  needful  "  "  to  abide  in  the  flesh."  From 
this  it  is  apparent  that  Paul's  ideal  of  life  transforms  the 
conception  of  death.  Both  are  companionship  with 
Christ.  Death  is  only  a  new  phase  of  lifc.82  Even  the 
suffering  attending  the  dissolution  of  the  body  is 
lessened  b}^  the  thought  that  it  brings  one  into  "  the 
fellowship  of  his  sufferings,"  and  that  through  it  one  may 
"  attain    unto   the   resurrection."  ^^ 

Many  of  Paul's  friends  seem  to  be  away  as  he  writes 
this  letter,  at  least  he  sends  greeting  only  from  Timothy. 
And  he  is  thinking  of  sending  even  him  away  soon.84 
Apparently,  he  sends  his  friends  to  visit  the  churches 
he  himself  longs  to  visit.  Epaphroditus  he  now  sends 
off  with  his  letter  bearing  thanks  and  love,  and  injunc- 
tions for  true  living  and  rejoicing. 85  This  note  of  re- 
joicing which  occurs  throughout  the  letter  in  spite  of  the 
sorrow  and  loneliness  that  are  also  apparent  shows  the 
conquering  spirit  of  Paul  as  he  faces  his  trial. 

Fragments  of  another  letter  ^6  possibly  give  us  infor- 

^2  Phil.  i.  19-30. 

^^  Phil.  iii.  10,  II.  Compare  iii.  20,  21.  Note  that  while 
Paul  speaks  of  being  with  Jesus  immediately  after  death,  he  still 
speaks,  also,  of  the  Coming  of  Jesus.  See  Phil.  i.  10  ;  iii.  20 
and  iv.  5.  However,  he  no  longer  thinks  of  the  dead  as  sleeping 
until  the  Coming,  as  he  did  earlier. 

**  Phil.  i.  I  and  ii.  19-23.  Note  that  Paul  greets  the  bishops 
and  deacons  of  Philippi.  This  is  the  only  place  in  the  certainly 
authentic  letters  of  Paul  where  these  titles  are  used,  and  it  is  a 
question  whether  the  titles  are  yet  official. 

^^  Phil.  iii.  I  and  iv.  1-6.  Two  women  receive  special 
injunctions  to  settle  their  differences,  and  a  friend  of  Paul's 
is  exhorted  to  help  them. 

^®  2  Tim.  iv.  16,  17.  I  and  2  Timothy  and  Titus  do  not  fit 
into  any  part  of  Paul's  life  that  we  know.  If  he  were  released 
from  prison  (see  note  92,  p.  242)  and  went  back  to  his  churches 
and  conducted  them  through  a  period  of  organization,  then 
these  letters  might  possibly  fit  into  that  period,  though  even  that 
would  not  remove  all  the  difficulties.      For  instance,   it  would 


PAUL   MORE  THAN  CONQUEROR   AT  ROME   24I 

mation  concerning  Paul's  trial.  Apparently  at  his 
"  first  defence  "  all  had  forsaken  him,  but  in  the  strength 
of  the  Lord  he  had  proclaimed  his  Gospel,  and  had  been 
"  delivered  out  of  the  mouth  of  the  lion."  As  he 
writes  "  only  Luke  "  is  with  him,  Demas  and  others  have 
forsaken  him.^^  One  Ephesian  friend  had  diligently 
sought  him  out  in  Rome,  and  is  gratefulty  remembered 
because  he  was  not  ashamed  of  Paul's  chain. ^s  Though 
Paul  is  longing  for  companionship,  he  does  not  ask 
Timothy  to  come  to  him,  but  tells  him  to  "  suffer  hard- 
ship "  in  the  fulfilment  of  his  ministr3\89  Qf  himself 
Paul  says, 

"  I  am  already  being  offered  and  the  time  of  my 
departure  is  come.  I  have  fought  the  good  fight,  I  have 
finished  the  course,  I  have  kept  the  faith."  ^o 

Here,  in  the  capital  of  the  Roman  Empire,  Paul,  then, 
laid  down  his  life  at  the  command  of  the  tyrant  Nero.^i 

still  be  strange  for  Paul  when  writing  to  his  old  friend  Timothy 
to  defend  himself  as  a  minister  as  he  does  in  i  Tim.  ii.  7,  and 
give  such  elementary  teaching  as  for  instance  in  i  Tim.  iv.  14-16. 
These  and  many  other  considerations  (see  Moffatt's  "  Introduc- 
tion to  N.T.,"  McGiffert's  "  Apostolic  Age,"  etc.)  make  it  most 
likely  that  these  are  books  written  by  a  follower  of  Paul's  after 
his  death.  The  occurence  of  certain  personal  notes,  however, 
make  it  possible  that  the  author  had  some  brief  notes  of  Paul's. 
It  is  only  with  the  greatest  uncertainty  that  such  notes  can  be 
separated  from  the  rest  of  these  books  and  fitted  into  Paul's 
life  as  known  by  his  certainly  authentic  letters,  still  it  is  worth 
trying. 

^'  2  Tim.  iv.   10,   iia;   2  Tim.  i.  15. 

^^  2  Tim.  i.  15-18.  This  seems  to  imply  that  Paul's  place  of 
imprisonment  had  been  changed. 

^*  2  Tim.  iv.  5. 

^°  2  Tim.  iv.  6-8.  Of  course,  in  a  letter  that  has  been  re- 
edited  as  much  as  2  Tim.  has,  we  cannot  be  quite  so  sure  of 
having  Paul's  own  vv^ords  as  in  the  undoubtedly  authentic  letters. 

^^  All  the  varieties  of  dates  that  are  assigned  for  the  death 
of  Paul  put  it  in  the  reign  of  Nero.  It  is  only  a  question  of 
whether  he  was  put  to  death  before  the  persecution  of  Christians 
connected  with  the  burning  of  Rome  in  64  a.d.  Nero  reigned 
from  54-68  A.D.  If  Paul  were  beheaded  as  early  as  62  a.d. 
(see  Table  of  Dates),  it  was  on  the  charge  of  inciting  to  riot 
with  which  he  had  been  charged  (Acts  xxiv.  5),  for  Nero's  whole- 


242  THE    LIFli    AND    MINISTRY    OF    PAUL 

The  earliest  traditions  say  that  he  died  as  a  "  martyr," 
being  beheaded  with  the  sword. ^^  How  little  Paul's 
enemies  dreamed  that  Rome  was  slaying  a  man^^  whose 
Gospel    would    yet    conquer    the    Empire  !     Though 


sale  persecution  of  Christians  did  not  begin  until  64  or  65  a.d. 

Any  charge  coukl  bring  a  man  to  death  under  Nero  if  he  wished. 
Tertullian  says  of  him,  "  W'lioevcr  knows  him  can  understand 
that  nothing  was  condemned  by  Nero  unless  it  was  something  of 
great  excellence."     (Eusebius,  "  Church  Hist.,"  II.  25.) 

^  Clement  of  Rome,  writing  about  95  a.d.,  says  :  "  Let  us 
set  before  us  the  noble  examples  which  belong  to  our  generation. 

Let  us  set  before  our  eyes  the  good  Apostles. 
By  reason  of  jealousy  and  strife  Paul  by  his  example  pointed  out 
the  prize  of  patient  endurance.  After  that  he  had  been  seven 
times  in  bonds,  had  been  driven  into  exile,  had  been  stoned, 
had  preached  in  the  East  and  the  West,  he  won  the  noble  renown 
which  was  the  reward  of  his  faith,  having  taught  righteousness 
unto  the  whole  world,  and  having  reached  the  farthest  bounds 
of  the  West ;  and  when  he  had  borne  his  testimony  before  the 
rulers,  so  he  departed  from  the  world  and  went  into  the  holy 
place,  having  been  found  a  notable  example  of  patient  endurance  ' 

What  is  meant  here  by  "  the  farthest  bounds  of  the  West  "  ? 
It  might  mean  Spain,  to  which  Paul  intended  to  go  (Rom.  xv.  24), 
but  it  may  also  have  meant  Rome  since  most  of  the  Roman 
civilization  was  to  the  east  of  Rome.  Clement  is  certainly  not 
speaking  in  exact  terms  in  any  of  the  passage. 

Tertullian,  writing  in  the  second  century  "  Concerning  the 
Proscription  of  Heretics,"  says  :  "  Where  Paul  hath  for  his 
crown  the  same  death  with  John  (the  Baptist)."  This  means 
that  Tertullian  thought  that  Paul  was  beheaded,  and  he  is  close 
enough  to  the  facts  to  know  them. 

Origen,  in  the  early  third  century  (quoted  by  Eusebius  "Church 
Hist.,"  III.  i),  says:  "  What  do  we  need  to  say  concerning  Paul, 
who  preached  the  Gospel  of  Christ  from  Jerusalem  to  Illyricum, 
and  afterwards  suffered  martyrdom  in  Rome  under  Nero  ?  " 

Luke  has  nothing  to  tell  about  the  end  of  Paul's  life.  This 
may  be  because  he  intended  to  write  another  book,  or  because 
the  fact  was  too  well-known  to  need  statement.  But  the 
omission  is  certainly  a  puzzling  problem.  Harnack's  recently 
published  view  (see  "The  Date  of  the  Acts  and  the  Synoptic 
Gospels")  is  attractive,  namely,  that  Luke  wrote  before  the  end 
of  Paul's  trial  and  intended  it  as  a  defence  of  Paul,  hoping 
perhaps  to  save  him. 

At  any  rate,  it  is  certain  from  the  above  references  in  the  early 
church  Fathers  that  Paul  suffered  martyrdom  under  Nero  in  Rome. 

^^  The  tradition  in  Rome  is  that  Paul  was  beheaded  outside 


PAUL   MORE  THAN  CONQUEROR   AT  ROME   243 

probably  few  of  those  hearing  his  trial  realized  the  quality 
of  man  who  was  being  condemned,  Paul's  own  friends, 
and  those  of  us  who  have  since  come  to  know  him  through 
his  letters  cannot  doubt  that  as  he  now  faced  death  he 
realized  to  the  depths  the  words  he  had  before  written 
to  the  Romans, 

"  Who  shall  separate  us  from  the  love  of  Christ  ? 
Shall  tribulation,  or  anguish  ...  or  peril,  or  sword  ?  .  .  . 
Nay,  in  all  these  things  we  are  more  than  conquerors 
through  him  that  loved  us." 


the  city  at  a  place  of  execution  now  known  as  Tre  Fontane, 
or  the  Three  Fountains,  and  that  he  was  buried  by  the  Tiber  where 
now  the  Church  of  St.  Paul  stands.  In  1891  Lanciani,  an  Italian 
archgeologist,  climbed  down  under  the  altar  and  found  a  tomb 
on  which  was  inscribed  : 

"  Paulo  Apostolomart." 
He  thought  the  writing  dated  from  the  fourth  century. 

Caius,  a  Christian  of  Rome  in  thfe  early  third  century,  says 
that  Paul  was  buried  on  the  Appian  Way,  which  is  the  location  of 
the  present  Church  of  St.  Paul. 

A  Roman  citizen  had  a  right  to  be  beheaded  with  the  sword 
when  condemned  to  death. 

It  seems  just  possible,  then,  that  there  is  fact  reflected  in  the 
tradition  that  Paul  was  beheaded  outside  the  city,  beyond  the 
present  church  of  St.  Paul,  and  buried  under  the  altar  by  the 
Tiber. 


CHAPTER  XX 

Paul's  world-wide  message. 

Paul's  passionate  devotion  to  Christ  expressed  itself 
in  deeds  and  words  suitable  to  the  first  century,  many 
of  which  have  been  found  helpful  in  following  centuries, 
but  his  amazing  influence  since  his  day  is  due  primarily 
to  the  fact  that  he  saw  and  acted  upon  fundamenta 
principles  inherent  in  the  Gospel  of  Christ  true  for  all 
time. 

He  sees  that  Jesus'  life  and  death  means  that  God  is 
searching  for  His  own  in  man,  and  that  man's  spirit 
may  be  consciously  united  with  God's  spirit  if  the  divine 
in  man's  nature  will  respond  with  faith  and  love.  Paul 
sees  this  as  the  prophet  sees,  with  the  inner  eyes  of 
spiritual  experience,  and,  therefore,  he  sets  it  forth,  not 
theoretically,    but   practically : 

"  The  Spirit  himself  beareth  witness  with  our  spirit, 
that  we  are  children  of  God."  ^ 

Even  more  clearl}'  than  those  who  had  walked  and 
talked  with  Jesus  does  Paul  perceive  the  inner  Spirit 
of  the  Master,  and  know  that  no  life  can  be  God-like 
without  being  Christ-like  in  spirit.  ^  Nor  can  the  Christ- 
like life  result  from  the  imitation  of  his  example  or  any- 
thing short  of  the  possession  of  his  spirit  : 

"  The   spiril   is   life." 
"  Christ    is   in    you."  ^ 

Paul's  world-wide  message  is,  then,  primarily  that  the 

^  Rom    viii.    i6. 

^  Rom    viii.  9-11,    14,    17. 

^  Rom.  viii.    10. 

244 


Paul's  world-wide  message  245 

vSpirit  of  God  manifest  in  Jesus  Christ  is  waiting  to  be 
manifest  in  us. 

Paul  not  only  thus  shows  the  practical  meaning  of 
Jesus'  life  for  life,  but  in  dealing  with  the  hindrances 
to  the  manifestation  of  his  God-like  spirit  in  us  he 
renders  an  especial  service  by  his  interpretation  of  the 
meaning  of  the  death  and  resurrection  of  Jesus  to  every- 
day living.  Aside  from  any  theories  concerning  God's 
world-plans  which  any  of  Paul's  words  may  imply,  it  is 
certain  that  he  sees  clearly  that  Jesus' death  and  resur- 
rection mean  for  each  person  death  to  everything  evil, 
life  to  the  divine  within.*  He  knows  this  in  his  own 
experience  and  sees  it  in  others  and  by  this  insight 
removes  the  "  stumbling  block  "  of  the  cross  by  making 
it  primarily  an  inner  experience.  Sacrifice  must  take 
place  within  the  spirit  of  everyone  hoping  to  live  the 
spiritual  life — sacrifice  not  only  for  the  self -development, 
but  for  others,  even  as  Christ  loved  us  and  gave  himself 
for  us.  5 

It  follows  from  Paul's  continual  emphasis  upon  the 
inner  life  that  no  outer  forms  are  of  importance  except 
in  so  far  as  the}^  affect  the  spirit.  He  evidently  has  no 
objection  to  baptism  nor  to  partaking  of  the  supper 
in  remembrance  of  the  Lord's  death,  but  he  lays  no 
emphasis  upon  these  as  necessary  to  spiritual  life,  and 
he  is  deeply  concerned  when  their  observance  is  so  con- 
ducted as  to  fail  to  contribute  to  the  true  spirit  of  Christ. ^ 
Forms  ma}^  be  kept  or  not  kept  as  people  prefer ;  the 
only  thing  of  importance  is  that  they  shall  not  be 
allowed  to  take  the  place  of  "  faith, "^  which  is  the 
true  attitude  of  the  soul  seeking  God.  Worship,  and, 
indeed,  all  life  is  based  upon  the  fact  derived  from 
experience  that, 

"  To  each  one  is  given  the  manifestation  of  the  Spirit. "^ 

*  Rom.  vi.,  etc. 

^  Rom. 

^  I  Cor.  xi.  2off ;    Rom.  vi.  3ff. 

'  GaL  ii.   1-21. 

8  I   Cor.  xii.  7. 


246  THE    LIFE    AXD    MINISTRY   OF    PAUL 

Acting  Upon  this  principle  it  is  not  strange  that  Paul 
developed  no  fixed  system  of  ethics  or  theology,  but 
pointed  rather  to  the  incentive  for  both — love  to  God 
and  man.  Though  his  mind  reached  out  eagerly  for  an 
understanding  of  the  ways  of  God,  and  he  used  many 
of  the  lines  of  thought  given  him  by  his  education  and 
surroundings  to  help  him  construct  his  explanations, 
vet  he  fulh'  recognised  that  much  of  such  "know- 
ledge "  shall  be  done  away,  and  that  we  are  only 
gradual^  attaining  to  an  understanding  fellowshii) 
with  God.  Love  is  the  one  attitude  of  the  spirit 
that  can  be  depended  on  both  to  lead  one  toward 
truth  and  to  help  one  to  decide  upon  the  right 
conduct  in  all  the  variety  of  possible  actions  which 
life  presents. 

**  Love  never  faileth. 
But  whether  there  be  prophecies,  they  shall  be  done 
away ; 
Whether  there  be  tongues,  they  shall  cease  ; 
Whether  there  be  knowledge,  it  shall  be  done  away. 
For  we  know  in  part, 
And  we  prophesy  in   part  : 
But  when  that  which  is  perfect  is  come, 
That  which  is  in  part  shall  be  done  away. 

"  When  I  was  a  child 
I  spake  as  a  child, 
I  felt  as  a  child, 
I  thought  as  a  child : 
Now  that  I  am  become  a  man 
I  have  put  away  childish  things. 

"  For  now  we  see  in  a  mirror, 
In  a  riddle  ; 
But  then  face  to  face  : 
Now  I  know  in  part ; 
But  then  shall  I  fully  know 
Even  as  also  I  have  been  fully  known. 


PAUL  S    WORLD-WIDE    MESSAGE  247 

"  But  now  abideth 
Faith,    hope,    love, 
These    three  ; 
But  the  greatest  of  these  is  love."^ 

But  why  is  Paul  so  sure  of  Love  ?  Because  he  knows 
the  Love  of  God  manifest  in  the  face  of  Jesus  Christ, 
transforming  his  own  life  and  radiating  to  men.  This 
inner  experience  of  God  he  cannot  doubt,  and  this 
certainty  shows  life  with  all  its  uncertainties  to  be  at  its 
heart  divine. 

"It  is  God     ... 
Who  shined  in  our  hearts, 
To  give  the  light  of  the  knowledge  of  the  glory  of 

God, 
In  the  face  of  Jesus  Christ. "i^ 


^  I  Cor.  xiii.     8-13.      For    the    rest    of    Prof.     Deissman's 
translation  of  this  chapter,  see  p.  182  and  p.  192. 
1°  2  Cor.  iv.  6. 


A  TABLl-:  OF   TENTATIVE  DATES   IN   THE 
LIFE  OF   PAUL. 

A.D. 

Death  of  Jesus^   -----  30 
Conversion  of  Panl-        -             -             -             -  32 
Fifteen  Da}'  Visit  to  Jerusalem^             -             -  34 
In  Syria,  Cilicia  and  Antioch                 -             -  34-44 
Evangelization  of  Galatia            -             -             -  44-46 
Conference  with  Pillars  in  Jerusalem*    -             -  4^1 
Wandering  in  Asia,  Entrance  in  Philippi             -  47 
Ministry  in  Thessalonica,  Borea,  Athens^           -  48 
Ministry  in  Corinth^        .             .             -             -  49-51 
Letter  to  Thessalonians       -             -             -  49 
Letter  to  Galatians  -            -             -             -  50 
Removal  to  Ephesus,  Journey  through  Galatia  -  52 
Ministry  in  Ephesus,  brief  visit  to  Corinth             -  52-54 
Three  Letters  to  Corinthians            -             -  52-54 
Sojourn  into  Macedonia-             -             -             -  55 
Last  Letter  to  Corinthians               -             -  55 
Note  to  Timothy     -             -             -             -  55 
Three  Months  sta}^  in  Corinth    -             -             -  56 
Letter  to  the  Romans        -             -             -  56 
Note  Introducing  Phoebe  to  Ephesians         -  56 
Journey  to  Jerusalem  and  Arrest            -             -  57 
Caesarean  Imprisonmenf^-            ...  58-59 
Voyage  to  Rome              -             -             -             -  60 
Imprisonment  in  Rome  -             -             -             -  61-62 
Letters  to  Philemon,  Colossians  and  Ephe- 
sians     -----  61-62 
Letter  to  Philippians,  Note  to  Timothy         -  61-62 
Condemned  to  Death  by  Nero^-                 -             -  62 

^  Allowance  has  been  made  in  this  table  for  the  Jewish  method 
of  counting  each  part  of  a  year  to  which  an  event  belonged,  as 
though  it  were  a  full  year. 

2  See  note  on  Aretas,  p.  59. 

^  See  note  on  the  fourteen  years,  p.  86. 

*  See  note  on  famine,  p.  97. 

^  See  note  on  length  of  time  in  Thessalonica,  ch.  XII.,  p.  121. 

^  See  note  on  Expulsion  of  Jews  from  Rome,  p.  140.  See 
note  on  (yallio,  p.  157. 

'  See  note  on  Felix  and  Festus,  p.  221. 

8  See  Note  on  Nero,  p.  241. 

24S 


INDEX 


BIBLICAL   PASSAGES    CITED. 


Matthew. 

Pa2;e 

Acts  {continued).             Page 

V. 

48        . 

.     238 

V. 

34-39  • 

48 

vii. 

12 

35 

vi. 

I 

76 

X. 

10 

.      177 

8 

46 

xiii. 

33 

.       98 

9 

46 

xiv. 

62 

146 

vii. 

56 

..47 

xxiii. 

5 

26 

58 

46 

15 

.       84 

59 

47 

xxiv. 

43,    44 

.      144 

viii. 

I 
3 

24,46 
46 

Mark. 

ix. 

1-3 

..46,49 

i. 

15 

42 

1-8       . 

..        53 

ii. 

1?,    17 

100 

8-25 

58 

22 

.       98 

22 

55 

23-28    . 

. 

•       42 

22-25 

..60 

iii. 

6 

•       42 

25 

61 

22 

43 

26-30 

65 

34 

.      126 

30 

66 

vi. 

14-16 

.       42 

x.-xi. 

18 

lOI 

vii. 

1-13    • 

43 

27-28 

lOI 

viii. 

27-33 

62 

xi. 

96 

ix. 

II 

42 

1-18 

lOI 

x. 

I 

43 

3 

lOI 

9-12    . 

.      176 

9 

lOI 

30 

.      118 

18 

102 

xi. 

I-IO 

. 

43 

20 

76 

15 

43 

19-21 

..    76 

xii. 

25 

.      176 

22,  23 

. .    76 

35 

..        89 

25,    26 

. .       77 

xiii. 

26-27 

..      147 

26 

76 

xiv. 

28 

.        63 

27-30 

. .  92-94 

62 

. . 

43,  147 

30 

87 

xvi. 

7 

. 

..        63 

xii. 

25 

. .     77,  92-94,  97 

9-20 

Luke. 

..        63 

xiii. 

I 

4,5 
6,  12 

164 
78 

ii. 

41-42 

••       33 

13 

78 

iv. 

17 

33 

14-48 

8i 

X. 

7 

. 

..      177 

43 

84 

xii. 

39-40 

.  .      144 

49 

..81 

xiii. 

31-33 

Acts. 

43 

xiv. 

49— XI 

6 
8-18 

V.   7         ••              ..81 

..81 

82 

i. 

I 

. . 

20 

19,  20 

. .        82 

ii. 

10 

..        84 

20-28 

. .        83 

29 

. . 

126 

XV. 

96,  lOI 

37 

126 

I 

83 

42 

•  •             • . 

99 

2 

85,87 

46 

. .        83, 

99,  126 

5 

..88,89 

iii. 

I 

. . 

..        83 

9 

104 

19-21 

. . 

. .      147 

22 

106,  107 

iv. 

26 

17 

29 

...      91 

249 


250 


INDEX 

Acts  {continued).             Page 

1-31  •'. 

..92-94 

32,  33 

. .  107 

36-39  • • 

. .  106 

37-40  . . 

..   78 

41    .  . 

74 

41-xvi.  3 

. .   107 

6 

80,  108 

6-10  . . 

20 

7     .. 

..   118 

7,  8   . . 

109,110 

10-12  . . 

112 

10-17  •  • 

20 

11 

..   114 

12    . . 

..   113 

13    .. 

25 

13-15 

..   113 

18    .. 

114,  "5 

17 

..  115 

19-20  . . 

..   116 

40    .. 

..   114 

I 

..   119 

2 

121 

3,  4  •  • 

..   124 

4 

84,  120 

5-7  .. 

. .   124 

6,  8   . . 

..   120 

8.  9   .. 

..   125 

10    . . 

..   125 

10-13 

..   127 

14    .. 

..   119 

14-15  •• 

..   127 

r6    .. 

..   128 

18    .. 

..   131 

21    . . 

131, 138 

22    . . 

••  133 

22-23  • • 

•  •   134 

25    . . 

..  136 

27-28  .. 

..   136 

29    .. 

..  136 

30-31 

..   137 

32-33 

..  138 

I 

..   128 

2-3   .. 

140 

3 

32 

6    .. 

..  151 

7 

..   158 

7-8   . . 

..   152 

8 

..   152 

9-10  . . 

..   152 

II 

..  158 

15    .. 

..  228 

18    .. 

. .  166 

19-23  •• 

..  167 

22-23  . . 

..   79 

23    .. 

..   80 

24-28  .. 

..  167 

25    .. 

. .  167 

1-8   . . 

. .  167 

10    . . 

..  188 

10-26  . . 

192 

13-20  . . 

..  188 

22    . . 

. .  175 

23-41  .. 

..  188 

29    .. 

. .  224 

Acts  (continued).             Paae 

I 

190. 193 

2,  3  •• 

202 

4    .. 

125,  202,  203 

4-5   •• 

•  .   213 

6 

•  •   213 

7-12   .. 

..   213 

7-16  .. 

20 

16    .. 

•  •   213 

18    .. 

..   192 

18-38  .. 

..   214 

31    •• 

..   188 

35    •• 

..   214 

..   216 

1-3   •• 

..   215 

1-18  .. 

20 

4-8   . . 

..   215 

8-14  .. 

..   215 

15-16  . . 

..   216 

19    .. 

..   167 

24,26  .. 

..   166 

27-38  .. 

..   217 

38 — xxii.  21 

..   217 

39    •• 

24 

2 

28 

3 

24,  27,  34 

4,  5   .. 

..   46 

4-6   .  . 

..   49 

6-9   . . 

53 

10-21  . . 

..   58 

17-21  . . 

..   65 

22-29  • • 

..   217 

28    .. 

24 

I-IO   .. 

..   218 

II    . . 

220 

12-35  •• 

..   218 

16    .. 

27 

35    •• 

..   237 

1-22  . . 

..   218 

5 

..   241 

II    . . 

..   218 

17    .. 

..   213 

23-26  . . 

..   219 

1-12  . . 

222 

13-22  .. 

. .   222 

13 — xxvi.  32 

..   223 

23    .. 

222 

4    .. 

34 

4-5   .  • 

27 

lO-II  . . 

..   46 

11-12  . . 

49 

12-15  . . 

53 

14    .. 

38,  47 

16-20  . . 

..   58 

20-23  •• 

..   65 

28    .. 

. .   223 

I 

20,223 

2 

21,189 

1-2   . . 

224 

3 

..   224 

4-5   •  • 

. .   224 

6-8   . . 

..   224 

9-12  .. 

..   225 

13-19  •• 

. .   225 

20-44  •• 

226 

INDEX 

251 

Acts  (continued).             Page       1 

Romans  [continued).           Page 

xxvii. 

38        .. 

. .     224 

xi. 

12,  25 

.     2x2 

cxviii. 

1-6       .. 

. .     226 

16-24   • • 

92 

7-11     .. 

. .     227 

27-30  . . 

94 

12,  13 

..227 

xii. 

I,  2     . . 

.     2x2 

14 

..227       ' 

2 

50 

16,  30 

. .     229       \ 

1-18     .. 

.     2x2 

16 

20           : 

xiv. 

XV. 

19        .. 

91 

.        127 

Roman 

S. 

19-24   .. 

204 

Romans  . . 

.  .       245 

23        •- 

.      228 

i. 

2-23     . . 

..137 

24        .. 

242 

4 

..56 

25        .. 

203 

9-13     •  • 

.  .       203 

25,  26,  31 

203 

13 

61 

30,  31 

2x2 

14 

• .       73 

xvi. 

.     203 

15,  16 

. .     205 

I 

.      166 

16 

..137 

1-23     .. 

169 

18-32   .. 

. .     205 

2 

.      166 

19 

..137 

3,  4     •■ 

.      171 

ii. 

I — iii.  20 

. .     205 

5-16     .. 

190 

15 

137,  205 

7 

.      171 

iii. 

2 

90 

7,  II,  21 

.      173 

20-28   . . 

. .     205 

12        . . 

.      191 

24 

209 

13        •• 

.23,66 

24,25    .. 

207 

17        .. 

169 

24-26  . . 

. .     208 

21-24 

202 

25 

206, 207 

23        •• 

202 

iv. 

1-25     .. 

. .     205 

2-11 

162 

I  Corinthians. 

5 

205 

i. 

1-2       . . 

..        165 

25 

209 

1-3       .. 

18 

V. 

1-5       •• 

. .     206 

4 

x8 

6-11     .. 

. .     208 

4-9       •  • 

19 

8 

207 

5 

91 

9 

207 

9           .. 

23,  x6o 

10        . . 

207, 210 

lO-II    .. 

..      173 

12-21    . . 

209 

11        . . 

IS2,  197 

vi. 

2-H       .. 

..163 

12        . . 

..        174 

3ff        .. 

59, 245 

14        .. 

152,  202 

6 

209 

14-16  . . 

..        152 

6-11      .. 

. .      208 

17        .. 

••        173 

23 

207, 209 

18,  23 

••        159 

vii. 

1-6       .. 

. .      208 

24        .. 

..        159 

7-11      .. 

•  •47 

26        .. 

..        161 

7-25     .. 

210 

30        .. 

161,209 

15,  19  •• 

47 

ii. 

X 

x6o,  173 

24,  25  •  . 

. .        48 

1-2          .  . 

160 

viii. 

1-2 

210 

2 

100 

2-3 

. .      208 

3 

•      152 

5-11     .. 

210 

I,  4,  5 

.      161 

9 

III 

6 

.     238 

9-11,   14,   17 

. .      244 

6-8       .  . 

,      161 

10 

. .      244 

7 

.      i6x 

12 

.  .      244 

12        . . 

.      x6x 

12-16   .  . 

• .      210 

16        .. 

.      x6x 

17-25    •• 

. .      210 

iii. 

5-9       •  • 

.      174 

28-30   . . 

. .      211 

6 

.      173 

29 

232 

6,  9     • . 

•      152 

31-39   •• 

211 

9,  II,  23 

.      174 

ix. 

211 

i 

16         .. 

.      159 

30— X.  9 

. .      211 

2X-23      .  . 

.      175 

X. 

.  .        2X1 

1 

iv. 

I 

] 

6x,  X74 

xi. 

Iff 

.  .        211 

II,    12 

.      167 

I 

23 

14,  15 

.      174 

25^ 


INDEX 


Corinthians  {continued). 

I'.igo    1 

I  Corinthians  (continued).      I'ag'- 

17   ..      •■      175,197   I 

XV.  1-58  . . 

. .   175 

18-21  .. 

.   183 

i-ii  .. 

. .   160 

21    . . 

.   185 

2 

. .   160 

I 

.   171 

3-8   . . 

. .   63 

3-5   •• 

•   172 

5-8   . . 

50 

6-8   . . 

.   172 

9 

..   46 

7     .. 

.   209 

17    .. 

210 

10,  II 

.   171 

28    .. 

. .   239 

II,  l^ 

•   172 

31    . . 

210 

i-ii 

•   172 

32    . . 

..   170 

12   . . 

•   173 

34    •• 

..   182 

12-20  . . 

•   173 

35-49  •• 

..   183 

13   •• 

•   159 

49    .. 

..   232 

K)    .. 

•   159 

50    .. 

182, 183 

I 

•   175 

51 

..   183 

1-24   .. 

•   174 

55    •  • 

..   182 

5,  8,  9 

.   176 

57    •• 

..   183 

8-12   .. 

.   194 

xvi.  I 

167,  202 

10,  II 

.   176 

1-4   .  . 

200,  201 

17-24  .. 

•   179 

I-II  .. 

..   175 

25-38  .. 

.   174 

3,  4   •  • 

. .   203 

29    .. 

.   176 

5-9   •  • 

183,  200 

.   176 

8 

..'  183 

I — xi.  I 

•   175 

8,  9  . . 

..   184 

4 

.   177 

9-11  .. 

• .   159 

.   176 

10,  II 

. .   183 

I 

•   50 

12    . . 

..   175 

I— X.  13 

.   177 

13,  14,  19,  24  . 

..   183 

4 

.   176 

15    •• 

140, 152 

9,  10  . . 

•   30 

17   .. 

.   132,  175,  197 

19-23  .. 

.   219 

19    .. 

190,  192 

24    .. 

.   176 

19-21  . . 

18 

91 

23,  24 

i8 

1-13  .. 

.   177 

22    . . 

..   147 

13 — xi.  I 

•   177 

14-17 

.   164 

2  Corinthians. 

24    .. 

.   178 

i.-ix. 

..  185 

31    .. 

.   178 

i.  I 

184,  194 

2-11,  16 

•   174 

1-7   . . 

..   195 

3 

■   179 

I — vi.  13 

195,  198 

17    .. 

99 

8-10  ..■ 

..   188 

17-34  •  • 

.   163 

8-11  .. 

190 

20ff   .  . 

•   245 

14    .. 

• .   194 

23     •• 

164 

15-20  . . 

. .  2  00 

24,  25 

.   164 

19    .. 

1 60 

34    •• 

.   185 

ii.  I 

. .   184 

I 

•   159 

I-II  . . 

..   198 

I — xiv.  40    . . 

.   174 

4 

..   1S3 

4-11  .. 

.   165 

5 

. .   202 

7    ..      ..      I 

64, 245 

6-8   . . 

196 

i2-e7  . . 

.   180 

12,  13 

■  ■   193 

28-31  .. 

164 

13    •• 

190 

. . 

.   182 

13-17 

. .  195 

I 

.   179 

iii.  I 

..   195 

4-7   .. 

.   192 

2 

•  •  195 

8-13 

•   247 

4-11  .. 

196 

1-33  •• 

.   180 

12 — iv.  6 

196 

6,  19  . , 

.   181 

17   .. 

161,  196 

26   .. 

164 

18   .. 

52, 232 

27,  29 

.   181 

iv.  6 

50, 52, 247 

29    .. 

.   179 

7-15   •■ 

..  197 

34    .. 

.   179 

10    .  . 

..  163 

34-3^"'  •  . 

•   173 

lO-II  .  . 

162, 210 

.   182 

16    . . 

, .  170 

INDEX 


253 


2 

Corinthians 

(continued). 

Page 

2  Corinthians  (continued).      Page 

iv. 

16-18  . . 

..  197 

xii.  12 

81 

25 

210 

14 

..   184 

V. 

I,  6  .. 

. .   197 

15 

..   187 

2-10  . . 

. .   197 

16-18  .. 

..   186 

8-10  . . 

. .  197 

17,  18 

..   188 

11-21  .. 

..  198 

18 

201 

12 

..  195 

20-21 

..   187 

14,  15 

[60,  208 

xiii.  1-2 

..   184 

16 

44 

1-5   •• 

..   187 

17 

160 

6-10  . . 

..   187 

19 

. .  207 

11-14 

187, 195, 199 

18-20  . . 

. .  207 

xiv.  1-3 

80 

21 

. .   207 

vi. 

I,  2   .. 

. .   198 

Galatians 

3-7   .. 

. .   198 

i. 

49,79 

8,  9  .. 

••   199 

I 

55,59 

9,  10  . . 

. .   199 

I,  II,  12 

••   154 

10 

.   220 

6 

18,  153 

11-13  .. 

] 

68,  199 

6-10  . . 

••   153 

14 — vii.  I 

. .   168, 

t95,  197 

9 

50 

16 

160 

10 

49 

vii. 

2 

. .  168 

II,  12 

••   54 

2,  II 

.  202 

11-23  •• 

••   154 

2— ix.  15 

•   199 

12 

50 

3,  4  •• 

•   199 

13 

..   46 

5 

•  193 

14 

23,31,41,44 

5,  6  .. 

.   188 

15 

49,  50 

5,  13-16 

•  194 

15-16 

23,  30, 

49,  52,  55,57 

5-13  . . 

•  199 

16 

••   59 

6 

•  194 

16-17  •  • 

54 

8 

85,  192 

18-19  • • 

62 

viii. 

1-4   .. 

.  202 

19 

164 

6-24  . . 

.  201 

21 

66 

10 

.  200 

21-24  • • 

66,  74 

20,  21 

.  186 

22 

64,66 

ix. 

1-4   .. 

.  201 

ii. 

49,  96 

5-14  •• 

.  201 

I 

216 

15 

.  186 

I,  2  . . 

..   86 

x.-xiii. 

10 

.■■   185,1 

95,  198 

I,  9.  13 

..   79 

I 

.   185 

I-IO   .  . 

92,94 

2-7   .. 

.   186 

1-21  .. 

154,  245 

4 

.   188 

2 

88 

7 

.   186 

3 

89,90 

9 

.   185 

4 

88,89 

10 

.   185 

4,  5   •• 

..   99 

11-18 

.   185 

5 

..   89 

14-16 

.   186 

6 

91 

xi. 

6 

.   185 

7 

88 

7-8   .. 

129 

8 

88 

9 

118,  121,  I 

29, 141 

7-9   •• 

90 

II 

.   187 

9   .  .. 

100,  102 

13-15  •• 

.   186 

8-9   .. 

61 

16-20  . . 

.   187 

10 

..96,97 

21-33  •• 

.   187 

II 

. .  77,  91,  99,  100 

21-  22 

23 

12 

. .   100 

25 

82 

12,  13  .. 

106 

26 

.   79 

13 

100 

28 

.   180 

14 

102 

32 

.59,  61 

15 

..   103 

32,33  •• 

60 

15,  16 

..   103 

xii. 

I-IO   . . 

.   187 

18 

104 

7 

.   80 

19,  20 

52,  105 

9 

.  220 

20 

..   149 

II 

•   195 

iii.  I,  2  . . 

. 

..   83 

254 


INDEX 


lii. 

C'.AIAIIANS  (ioittiiitu;!). 
1-3 

Papc 
••   154 

::,  5   •• 

•  .   154 

3 

..   83 

5 

81 

6,  7   . . 

..   135 

8,  9   . . 

..   155 

9-14  . . 

..   155 

11-14  •• 

..   83 

13    .. 

•   45, 

207,  208 

13-14  .. 

..    56 

15-18  . . 

••   155 

19    .. 

•  •   r55 

20    . . 

•  •   155 

21-25  • • 

..   156 

26-29  •  • 

..   156 

28    .. 

..   178 

iv. 

1-3 

..  156 

4-7   . . 

..   156 

6 

50 

52, III 

8,  9   .  . 

..   83 

8-11   .. 

..   156 

10    .  . 

..   153 

13    .. 

•  •   153 

13-15  .. 

80 

20 

•  •  153 

21-31  . . 

..   156 

V. 

1 

..   83 

1-6   .. 

..  156 

2-3   •• 

•  •   153 

11 

83,  107 

13-26  . . 

.  .   157 

16-18  .. 

..   83 

24 

160 

vi. 

1-18  .. 

..  157 

15 

..  216 

18 

19 

Ephesians. 

i. 

1 

..  235 

15 

..  235 

iii. 

1-8   .. 

•  •  234 

2-4   .. 

..  235 

5,  6  .. 

..  235 

V. 

2 

. .  209 

vi. 

4 

..   67 

Philippians. 

i. 

I      ..        ..83, 

117,  240 

3-6   . . 

..   114 

7 

..   1x8 

9    .. 

..   117 

10 

240 

12,  13 

..   237 

13 

229, 237 

19 

111 

19-30 

240 

20 

••   239 

25 

••   239 

27 

106,  118 

ii. 

1-11 

..   238 

4 

..   117 

5-8   . . 

..   148 

6 

••   237 

11 

..   113 

I'nii.:i'i 

lANs  {lunlinticii). 

I'.iK- 

11. 

1-,  13       ••      ••   117 

12-16  .  . 

•  239 

14-18  . 

.  23H 

15 

.   "7 

16 

■   117 

17,  18 

•  239 

19-23  • 

240 

24 

.  239 

25 

.   114 

25-30  . 

•  237 

26 

.  237 

iii. 

I 

2,  3   • 

4-5   • 

4-9   • 

5 

5-6   . 

6 

8 

10-11 

12-16 

17-19 

20-21 

20 

240 

•  238 

23 

.  238 

.    35 

.   46 

.   48 

.   67 

.   240 

.   238 

.   238 

240 

240 

:      iv. 

1 

1-6 

2 

3 

3,18 

5 

9 

10-20 

14 
14-16 

..   118 
. .   240 
..   114 
..   117 
..   114 
. .   240 
..   117 

236 
. .   236 

121 

15 

.   118,  128,  141 

22 

..  237 

COLOSSIANS. 

i. 

1      .  .        .  .        .  .   236 

7 

..  231 

9,  10 

232 

11-14 

232 

15-23 

. .  232 

24-29 

...  234 

26-27 

. .  235 

ii. 

I 

192 

2 

.  •  233 

3 

232 

4-8 

..231 

9-10 

232 

11-23 

. .  234 

18 

232 

iii. 

I 

. .  232 

1-4 

. .  234 

5-14 

..234 

8 

..231 

10 

• .  232 

10- n 

..178 

15 — iv 

.  1 

..234 

21 

. .   67 

iv. 

2-6 

..235 

7-9 

231, 236 

10 

189,  224,  233,  236 

1 

10-14 

.• 

236 

INDEX 


255 


Colossi ANs  (continued). 

Page 

2  Thessalonians. 

Page 

12,  13 

231 

ii. 

1-12     .. 

149,  150 

13 

235 

iii. 

7          .. 

. .      150 

14 

21 

224 

15 

191 

Philemon. 

16-17 

235 

17 

230 

1-16     .. 

2          . .              . .      191 

• .     230 

229,  230 

I  Thessalonians. 

4-7       . . 

19 

I 

18 

10 

229 

2 

18 

II,  18,  19 

230 

2-5       .. 

19 

12 

230 

3 

,   , 

142 

16 

229 

5 

125 

17-20  . . 

•  •     231 

6          . .              . .      122, 

125 

142 

21,  22  . . 

..     231 

7-8       . . 

142 

23 

231,  236 

9 

120 

23-24  .. 

236 

10 

123 

24 

21,  189 

I           ..               ..      119, 

123 

143 

25 

..        19 

2 

117 

119 

3-6       . . 

122 

I  Timothy. 

5 

143 

i. 

•  •     239 

6 

121 

3 

••      193 

7          .. 

125 

ii. 

7 

..     241 

8 

122 

iv. 

14-16  .. 

••     239 

9          • .                   32,  68, 

121, 

143 

10-12  . . 

122 

2  Timothy. 

11,9    .. 
13 

122 

142 
143 

2 

Timothy 

240,  241 

14 

142 

i. 

15 

241 

14-16  . . 

142 

15-18 

..      241 

17 

125, 

141 

iv. 

5 

..      241 

17,   i^ 

128 

6-8       . . 

..      241 

18 

142 

9,  12-15,  19,  20 

•  •      193 

19 

123 

ID,    II 

..     241 

19,  20 

126 

II 

21 

1-5 

128 

14 

. .      189 

5 

123 

16-17 

240-241 

6 

129 

143 

6-8       . . 

141 

Titus. 

9,  10    . . 

142 

Titus  . . 

. .     240 

II 

141 

13 

123 

Hebrews. 

I 

143 

2-8       . . 

143 

ix. 

5 

. .     207 

9 

149 

10 

142 

2  Peter. 

II 

122 

144 

ii. 

13 

..       99 

11-12  . . 

145 

13 

143, 

145 

JUDE. 

14-15  •• 

146 

15 

147 

12 

99 

16,  17 

123 

146 

26 

18 

OLD  TESTAMENT. 

28 

18 

I 

144 

Genesis. 

5 

126 

144 

6-8       . . 

145 

V. 

2 

39 

8           .. 

143 

xii. 

7 

•  •      155 

10 

148 

xiii. 

15 

..      155 

II 

148 

XV. 

13 

•  •      155 

12-13  . . 

144 

XXV. 

13 

59 

14 

15-18 

145 
149 

Exodus. 

23 

149 

xii. 

40-41 

..      155 

9a 


256 


INDEX 


zix.     31 
XX.     6,  27 


VI.     5 


V.  37 

xiii.  6-11 

xxi.  23 

xxxiii.  2 


xxviii.     7 

Ix.     7 

i-     5 


Leviticus. 

Numbers. 
Deuteronomy. 

I  Samuel. 
Isaiah. 
Jeremiah. 
Daniel. 


vii.     13 

13-27 
xii.     12-13 


Page 
166 


37 

45 

45 

155 


"5 
59 
23 


146 

••       39 
146 


XIV.      5 


.     26 

•  24 

•  9 


V.     8 


Hosea. 
Zechariah. 


APOCRYPHA. 

2    ESDRAS. 


2  Maccabees. 


Enoch 


xlv. 

xlvi. 

lii. 

Ixix. 


Psalms  of  Solomon 


Ps.  xviii. 


Page 
64 

146 


147 
146 

146 


54 


39 
39 
40 
40 


40,  41 


INDEX 


PLACES,  PERSONS,  SUBJECTS. 


Abraham,  56,  154-5,  205. 

Academic  philosophy,  70. 

Achaia,  141-142,  152,  157,  201,  204,  213. 

Achaicus,  152,  175,  198. 

Acrocorinthus,  139. 

Acropolis,  129,  130. 

Acts,  Book  of,  19-21,  79. 

Adams,  J.,   135. 

Adramyttium,  224. 

Adriatic  Sea,  127. 

Mgsi,  71. 

iEgean  Sea,  in,  112,  153,  166,   213,  214. 

vEschylus,  47,  129. 

Agabus,  95,  215. 

Agape,  99. 

Agrippa  II.,  222,  223. 

Albania,  127. 

Alexander  of  Ephesus,  189,  193. 

Alexander  the  Great,  28. 

Alexandra,  26. 

Alexandria,   33,   46,   59,   66,   67,   72,   97, 

174,  224,  226. 
Am.phipoIis,  119. 
Ampliatus,  191. 
Amyntas,  78. 
Anabasis,  28. 
Ananias,  59,  87. 
Anaximander,  214. 
Ancyra,  29,  79. 
Andronicus,  170,  191. 
Antioch  of  Pisidia,  79-81,  109. 
Antioch  of  Syria,  59,  75,  76,  85,  87,  91, 

99-105,  106,  107,  no,  153,  154,  166. 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  130. 
Antiochus  of  Antioch,  75. 
Antipater,  68. 
Antonia,  Tower  of,  217. 
Antony,  Mark,  27,  68. 
Apelles,   191. 

Apocalyptic  Literature,  39-71,   146,   147. 
Apollo,  71,  75,  115. 
ApoUonia,  119. 
Apollonius  of  Tyana,  70,  71. 
Apollos,  167,   173,   183. 
Apostleship,  30,  55-57,  62,  74,  176-7. 
Appearances  of  Jesus,  49-51,  63-4. 
Apphia,  230. 

Appian  Way,  82,  112,  228-9. 
Appius,  Market  of,  228. 
Aquila,    140-1,    151,    166-7,    170-1,    190, 

193,  202,  214. 
Arabia,  49,  54,  57,  97, 


Aramaic  Language,  28,  32,  147,  217. 

Aratus  of  Soli,  135. 

Archedemus,  68. 

Archippus,  230. 

Areopagus,  132,   133,  138. 

Aretas,   59-61. 

Aristarchus,  21,   125,   189,  224,   236. 

Aristobulus,  191. 

Aristophanes,   130. 

Aristotle,  73. 

Artemidorus,  71. 

Asclepius,  124,  130. 

Asia,  Roman  Province,  108,  iio-i,  192-3, 

213,  216. 
Asiarchs,  189. 
Assos,  68,  213-4. 
Athena,   130. 
Athenodorus,  68-70. 

Athens,  34,  67-8,  128-138,  142,  152,  166. 
Atonement,  Day  of,  225. 
Augustine,  84. 
Augustus  Caesar,  28-9,  69,  70,    113,   124. 

Bacon,  B.  W.,  95. 

Baptism,  116,  162,  163,  245. 

Barnabas,    76-79,    81,    85,    86-98,    loo-i, 

106,  165. 
Beelzebub,  43. 
Bercea,  125,  127. 
Bishops,  83,  240. 
Bithynia,   109-in. 
Boethus,  68,  69. 
Bosnia,  127. 
Britain,  72,  204. 
Brotherhood,    100,    loi,    102,    103,    106, 

126,   158,   163,   164-5,   172,   194,  231; 
Brothers  and  Brethren,  66,  106,  117,  119 

126,   128,   142,   172,   190,  212. 
Brundisium,   112. 
Burkitt,    F.    C,   21. 
Burton,  E.  D.,  120. 
Byzantium,  112. 

C^SAREA,     66,     166,     215,     218-9,     221, 

223-4,  237. 
Caesarea  Philippi,  62. 
Caius,  243. 
Caligula,  59,  60. 
Capernaum,   42. 
Cappadocia,  32. 
Capua,  228. 
Carpus,    193. 


257 


-\.8 


IXDKX 


Catacomb  of  Domitilla,  82. 

Cauda,   225. 

Cenchr&E,   138-9,   166,  213. 

Cephas,  62,  89,  99,  102,  (see  Peter). 

Charles,  R.  H.,  39,  147. 

Chios,  213. 

Chloe,  132,  173,  175,  198. 

Christian,  the  name,  76-7. 

Christ  within,   105,   149,   162-3,   210. 

Chrysippus,  67-8. 

Church,   19,  49,   142,   164,  165,   166,   167, 

190,   191,   192,  22J,  231. 
Cicero,  73,  133. 
Cilicia,  32,  46,  66,  74,  76,  107. 
Cilician  Gates,   28. 
Circumcision,  23,  83-5,  87-90. 
Claudius,  Emperor,  84,  97,  140,  157,  228. 
Cleanthes,  68,  132,  135,  137. 
Clement,   114,   117. 
Clement  of  Rome,  242. 
Cleopatra,  27. 
Cnidus,   224. 
Collection    for    Jerusalem,    96,     199-201, 

203-4,  218-9. 
Coloss.?,  192,  230. 
Colossians,   Letter   to,    14,    232-5. 
Conference  at  Jerusalem,  86-98,  104. 
Corinthian  Correspondence,  168,  171-183, 

185-188,   194-199. 
Corinth,   Paul's  work  in,   138-142,   151-2, 

157-165,  184-5,  202-3. 
Cornelius,   101-2. 
Cos,  214. 
Crescens,  21. 
Crete,  224. 
Crispus,  151. 
Cumont,  F.,  163. 
Cydnus,  25,  27-8,  30,  71. 
Cyprus,  76-78,  97,  215-6,  226. 
Cyrene,  76. 

Damaris,    138. 

Damascus,  46-49,   51,   54,   57,   59-61,   74, 

89,  97,  123. 
Daniel,  39. 
Daphne,  grove  of,  75. 
Deacons,  83,  240. 
Death  of  Jesus,  45,  52,  60,  83,  97,   155, 

157,  160,  164,  206-210,  244. 
Decrees  of  the  Jerusalem  Conference,  91, 

95,  107. 
Deissman,  A.,   13,   17,   124  138,  177,  182, 

192,   247. 
Delphi,  72,  115,  157. 
Demas,  21,  236,  241. 
Demetrius  of  Ephesus,  188-190. 
Demetrius  of  Tarsus,   72. 
Derbe,  80,  82,  107. 
Devils,  177. 

Diana,  75,   166,   168-170,   188-190. 
Diodorus,  71. 
Diogenes,    71. 
Diogenes  Laertes,  68,  133. 
Dion  Chrysostom,  32,  73,  179. 
Dionysides,  71, 


Dionysius,  138. 
Dionysius,   Bishop,    174. 
Dionysus,    129-130. 
Dium,  127. 
Dijrylaion,   109. 
Drews,  A.,  167. 
Druids,   72. 
Drusiila,   219. 
Dyrrachium,   112. 

EccLESiA,    130    (see    Church). 

Egnatian  Way,   112,   119. 

Egypt,   14,  32,   124,   177,  224. 

Eleusis,  161. 

Elgin  Room  (British  Museum),  130. 

Elijah,  42. 

Enoch,  39,  40,  47. 

Ep.enetus,  169,  191. 

Epaphras,  231,  235-6. 

Epaphrodites,    114,    117,    236-7,    240. 

Ephesians,     Letter     introducing    Phoebe, 

169,  202-3. 
Ephesians,  Letter  to,  14,  235. 
Ephesus,  Paul's  work  in,  166-171,   183-4, 

188-193,  214,  216,  230-1,  241. 
Ephesus  Room  (British  Museum),  170-189. 
Epicurians,    131,    135-7. 
Epilepsy.  80  (see   Introduction). 
Erastus,  193-4. 
Eubulus,  21. 
Euodias,  114,  117. 
Euphrates,  84. 
Eusebius,  174,  242. 
Eutychus,  213. 

FaDUS,   PROCURATOR,   97. 

Faith,   74,   83,    104-5,    148,     154-5,     182, 

205-6. 
Family,  Paul's,  23,  66. 
Famine,  in  Judaea,  97-8. 
Felix,  218-9,  221. 
Fellowship,    46,    83,    90-1,    97,    99,    100, 

102-3,  114,  126,  191,  192,  212,216,219, 

236. 
Festus,   221-224. 
Fortunatus,  152,  175,  198. 
Furies.  The,  i  -,z. 


Gaius,   125,    152,   189,   214. 

Galatia,  Paul's  work  in,  79-83,  108,  109, 

166-7,  213. 
Galatians,  Letter  to,  153-157,  200. 
Galilee,  42-3,  59,  62-3,  85. 
Gallio,   157-8,  229. 
Gamaliel,  34-36,  48. 
Gardner,  P.,  162-164. 
Gentiles,  30,  47,  55,  57,  59,  60-1,  83-85, 

100-103,  211-2. 
Gildersleeve,  B.  L.,  71. 
Gospel,  ch lice  of  word,  42,  54-5,  59,  61. 
Grasco-Roman  World,  24,  77. 
Greeks,  28-9,  75-6,  84,  120,  226. 
Gregory,  C.  R.,  13. 


INDEX 


259 


Guidance  of  God,  23,  49,  86,  87,  110-112, 

152. 
Gymnasium,  25,  34,  68,  168. 

Hagar,  156. 

Harnack,  A.,  21,  95,  no,  242. 

Harris,  Rendel,  143. 

Hawkins,  J.   C,   20-1. 

Hebrews,  Gospel  of  the,  64. 

Hecataeus,  214. 

Herod  Agrippa  I.,  97. 

Herod,  theGreat,  42-3,  59,  215,  217,  237. 

Hezekiah,  The  Testament  of,  146. 

Hibeh  Papyri,   115. 

Hicks,  R.  D.,  136-7. 

Hierapolis,  235. 

Hillel,   35-38. 

Hippocrates,  214. 

Hobart,  W.   K.,   21. 

Horton,  R.  H.,  165. 

House-churches,    190-1. 

IcoNiuM,  80,  81,  107,  108. 
Illyricum,   127,   203-4,  242. 
Infirmity,  Paul's,  80-1,  83. 
Isaac,   156. 

Isthmian  Games,  139. 
Izates,  of  Adiabene,  84. 

James,   62-64,   66,   86-98,    100,    102,    165, 

216,  220. 
Jason,  124-5. 
Jerome,   64. 
Jesus  Justus,  21. 
Jewish  Education,  26,  31-41. 
Jewish  Home  Life,  25-6. 
Jews,  24,  47,  60. 
John  the  Baptist,  162,  167,  242. 
John  the  Disciple,  86-98. 
Joppa,   213. 
Josephus,   24-26,   29,   31,   33,   38,  59,   61, 

75,   84-5,  97-8,  217,  219,  221,  234. 
Joshua  Ben  Gambia,  26. 
Judjea,  64,  66,  83,  87,  142-215. 
Judaism,  75,  83-85. 
Judas,  91. 

Julicher,  A.,   21,   80. 
Julius,  223. 
Junias,  171,  191. 
Jupiter,  81-2. 

Justification  by  faith,  103,  155,  205-6,  210. 
Justin  Martyr,  163. 

King,  A.  W.,  72,  115. 
Kingdom  of  God,  The,  42,  73,  122-3,  i44, 
146-149,  197,  212. 

Lake,  K.,  60,  63,  84,  97,  109,  147,  162, 

164,  167,  171,  174. 
Lanciani,  242. 
Laodicea,  192,  235-6. 
Law,  32-35,  37,  42,  44,  46-48,  52,  55-57, 

61,   216. 
Lesbos,  213. 
Letter-writing,    13-18. 


Liberty,  99,   102,  176,  196,  210. 

Lightfoot,  J.  B.,  70,  114,  1 16. 

Linus,  21. 

Livy,   237. 

Logia,  147  (see  Sayings  of  Jesus). 

Logos,   136,  233. 

Lord's  Supper,  The,  163-4,  180,  245. 

Love-feasts,  99. 

Love,  Hymn  of,  181-2,  191-2,  194,  246-7. 

Lowrie,  W.,  82. 

Luke,  20,  21,  51,  59,  110-112,  213,  224, 

236,  241. 
Luke,  Gospel  of,  20-1. 
Lycaonia,  78-83. 
Lycia,  78. 

Lydia,    113-4,    116-7. 
Lysias,  217-8. 
Lysikrates,  130. 
Lystra,  80-82,   107,   109. 

Macedonia,  75,  no,  112-3,  120,  140-142, 
175,  183,  190,  193-4,  199,  201,  204,  213. 

Malaria,  80. 

Marcion,  Canon  of,  235. 

Mark,  Gospel  of,  63,  164. 

Mark,  John,  77-8,  81,  106,  236. 

Marriage,  175-6. 

Mars  Hill  (see  Areopagus). 

Mary  of  Ephesus,  191. 

McGiffert,  A.  C,  21,  80,  134,  170,  241. 

Meeting  for  Worship,  181. 

Melita,  226. 

Mercury,   8r. 

Messiah,  38-42,  44-46,  48,  52,  55,  60,  62, 
76-7,  90,  116,  123-4,  167. 

Messina,  227. 

Miletus,  129,  193,  213-4. 

Milligan,  G.,  13,  15,  17,  124,  126. 

Miracles,  81,  159,  165,  213. 

Mithra,   Religion,  The,   162-3. 

Milylene,  214. 

Mnason,  2x6. 

Moffatt,  J.,  80,  109,  169,  185,  235,  241. 

Mommsen,  T. ,  60,  78,  223. 

Monotheism,  27,  73,  85,  98,  134-5. 

Moses,  34,  38,  155. 

Moulton,  J.  H.,   14. 

Mummius  (Roman  Consul),   139. 

Myra,  215,   224. 

Mysia,  109,  no,  214. 

Mysteries,  Eleusinian,  161. 

"  Mystery  of  God,"   161-3,  208-9,   233-5. 

Mystery  Religions,  162-3. 

Nabateans,  54,  59,  60. 

Narcissus,   191. 

Nature,  13-4,  30. 

Nazareth,   42. 

Nazarite,  216,  219. 

Neapolis,   112. 

Nero,  129,  221-2,  227,  229,  237,  241-2. 

Nestor,   68,   70. 

New  Testament,   14,   15. 

Nymphas,  236. 


26o  INDKX 


Onesimus,  229-231,  236. 
Oiicsiphorus,    193. 
Oral   Law,   35-6. 
Origin,   242. 
Ostia,  227. 

Palatine  Hill,  229,  237. 

Pamphylia,  83. 

Paphos,   78. 

Papyri,  13,  15,  i7,  124,  i77- 

Parousia,   123-4,   144,   146,  240. 

Parthenon,   130. 

Passover,  43,  172,  208-9,  213. 

Patara,   214. 

Paul  and  Thekla,  Acts  of,  82. 

Pausanias,    134,   139- 

Peake,  A.  S.,  21,  149,  150. 

Pentecost,    184. 

Perga,  78,  80-1. 

Pergamon,  134. 

Persecution,  49,  95,  118,  128,  130,  141. 

Persephone,  161-2. 

Pessinus,  79. 

Peter  (see   Cephas),    62-3,    66,  86-98,  99, 

105,  107,  174- 
Peter,  Gospel  of,  63. 
Pharisees,  35,  42-3,  88-9,  100,  123-4,  218, 

223. 
Philemon,  229-231,  236. 
Philip  of  Macedonia,  112. 
Philip  the  Disciple,  215,  219. 
Philippian    Correspondence,    121,    128.9, 
141,  236-240. 

Philippi,   Paul's  work  in,   111-119,    201, 
213. 

Philo,  26,  33,  129,  233. 

Philosophy,    67-73,    i34-i37,    233. 

Philostratus,  70. 

Phoebe,   166,   169. 

Phoenicia,  66,  214,  226. 

Phoenix,  225. 

Phrygia,   108-9. 

Phylacteries,    226. 

Pindar,   47. 
Piraeus,  138. 

Pisidia,  78-9,  83. 

Plato,  70. 

Pliny,   113. 

Plutarch,   27,   72,   ii5,   i33- 

Pluto,    161. 

Piiyx,  130. 

Politarchs,   120,   124-5. 

Pompeii,  227-8. 

Pompey,  28-9,  59. 

Pontus,  25. 

Pretorian  Guard,  229,  237. 

Priscilla,    140-1,    151,    166-7,    170-1,    190^ 
193,   202,   214. 

Prophets,  33,  38,  54,  72,  106,  215. 

Proselytes,  75,  84. 

Psalms  of  the  Pharisees,  40. 

Ptolemais,    215. 

Publius,  226. 

Pudens,   21. 

Puteoli,   227. 


Queen    Helena    of    Adiabbnf,    84-89, 
97-8. 

Rabbis,   35-37- 

Ramsay,  W.  M.,  27,  70,  73,  80-1,  96-7, 

no,  116,  131,  179,  214,  219,  223,  226. 
Religion,  ceremonial,  37-8,  42,  43,  48,  83, 

85,  90,  98,   I54-I57- 
Religion  of  the  Spirit,  83,  154,  157,  195-6, 

210. 
Resurrection,    56,    63-4,    131,    137,    I55. 

170,  182,  209,  210,  218,  240,  245. 
Revelation,  86,  181. 
Rhegium,  227. 
Rhodes,  214,  224. 
Richardson,  R.  B.,   151. 
Robertson  and  Plummer,  184. 
Roman  Citizenship,  24,  30,  72,  113,  116, 

133,   217,   222,   229. 
Roman   Empire,    13,  24,  72,  76,  113,  "4, 

123,  131,  203,  204,  221,  241. 
Romans,  28-9,  78,  83. 
Romans,  Letter  to,  14,  137,  203,  211,  212, 

220. 
Rome,  21,  32,  72,  203-4,  211-2,  220-243. 
Royce,  J.,  in. 
•Rufus,  191. 
Ryle  and  James,  41. 

Sabbath,  33,  37,  42- 

Sadducees,  218. 

Salamis,  77. 

Samos,  214. 

Samothrace,  112. 

Sanday  and  Headlam,  169. 

Sanhedrin,  43,  218,  220. 

Sappho,  213. 

Sarah,  156. 

Sardanapolis,  73. 

Sardis,  170. 

Satan,  128,  142,  172,  186. 

Saul,  24,  76. 

Sayings  of  Jesus,  144, 177,  214  (seeLogia). 

Schiirer,  E.,  26,  31-34,  36-38,  60,  84,  98. 

Scribes,  31,  35,  38,  43-4. 

Secundus,  125. 

Seleucia,  77. 

Seneca,  69,  7^,  84,  158,  229 

Septuagint,  32. 

Serapis,   227. 

Sergius,  Paulus.  78. 

Shammai,  35-38- 

Shekinah,  36. 

Shema,  26,  31. 

Sicily,  227. 

Sidon,  224. 

Silas,  79,  91,   106,   109,   112,   n6-7,   119, 

121,  125,  127-8,  142,  153,  160. 
Smith,  J.,  226. 
Smith,  W.  B.,  167. 
Socrates,  131-2. 
Soli,  68,  135. 
Son  of  God,  49,  50,  52,  56,  123,  137,  160, 

239- 
Son  of  Man,  39,  40,  47,  123,  144,  146,  i47- 


INDEX 


261 


Sosthenes,   158. 

Spain,  204,  242. 

Stachys,   191. 

Stadium  of  Athens,  129. 

Stadium  of  Ephesus,  170. 

Stephanas,   140,   152,   175,   183,   198. 

Stephen,  46-7,  66,  125. 

Stonehenge,  226. 

Strabo,  25,  27,  67,  70,  71,  72,  75,  78-9, 

119,   120,   139. 
Suetonius,   59,   140. 
Sylvanus  (see  Silas). 
Synagogue,  30,  33,  46,  61,  75,  76,  81,  120, 

151- 
Syntyche,   114,   117. 
Syracuse,  227. 
Syrtis,  225. 

Tacitus,  221,  229,  237. 

Talmud,  25,  38. 

Tarsus,   24-33,   57,   66-74,   i35,   170,   i79- 

Taurus  Mountains,  28-9,  70. 

Taylor,  C,  34-38. 

Teaching  of  the  Twelve,  The,  147,  164. 

Temple,   The,  34-43,   83,   216,   217. 

Tennyson,  Alfred,   147. 

Tent-making,  32,  44,  46,  67,  68,  121,  140- 

142,  151,  168,  219. 
Tertius,   203. 
Tertullian,  162,  242. 
TertuUus,  218. 
Thales,  214. 
Theatre,  129,  189. 
Theophilus,  20. 
Three  Taverns,  228. 
Theseum,  130. 
Thessalonian  Correspondence,  128-9,  141- 

150. 
Thessalonica,     Paul's    work   in,    1 19-124, 

201,   224. 
Thyratira,  113. 
Tiberius  Alexander,  Proc,  97. 


Timothy,  107-9,  112,  119,  121,  127-8, 
141-3,  153,  157,  160,  171,  175,  183-4, 
193- 

Timothy,  letters  to,  193-4,  240-1. 

Titus,  86,  89,  90,  97,  188,  193-195,  199, 
200,  201. 

Titus  Justus,  151-2. 

Titus,  Letter  to,  240. 

Tongues,   180-1. 

Tower  of  the  Winds,   130. 

Tre  Fontane,  243. 

Troas,   iia-112,   193,  213. 

Trophimus,    193,    216. 

Turkey,    120. 

Tyana,  70. 

Tychicus,  21,  193,  231,  235-6. 

Tyrannus,   School  of,   169,    190. 

Tyre,   215. 

University  of  Alexandria,  67,   174. 
University  of  Athens,  67,  131-2. 
University  of  Tarsus,  27,  34,  67-8,  70. 
Urbanus,   191. 

Vatican,    The,    82. 
Venus,    120,    i6g. 
Visions,    10 1,    112,  225. 

Walden,  67. 

Weinel,   H.,   30. 

Weiss,  J.,  44. 

"  We  Sections  "  of  Acts,  20. 

Westcott  and  Hort,  164. 

Women,  23,  61,  113,  114,  178-9,  215,  240. 

Worship,   113,   164,  180,   190,  215. 

Xenophon,  28. 

York,   72. 

Zend,  68,  133. 
Zeus,    130. 


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